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Social Media Use During the Covid19 Pandemic

Jada Franklin

Ms. Shaffer

English 1020

4th Nov. 2021

Social Media Use During the Covid19 Pandemic

The use of social media is broad, and it significantly keeps growing. The onset of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) brought about the need for social distancing. Quarantines and lockdowns meant minimal physical interaction. The internet became the best option to fill this need, as It provides a means of exchange, obtaining, and sharing information. There is a good side t the use of social media and also an ugly side to it. This thesis will focus on the use of social media and show how beneficial and disastrous its use was during the covid-19 pandemic.

Social media has had a colossal influence on human interaction. Covid-19 brought a lot of social restrictions, especially major events, especially sporting events and general public gathering events. But with the invention of social media created an avenue for interaction including, sports. One abstract explains social media has had on sports, revealing that it has provided a platform for sports and interactions between athletes and fans (Hayes). The same abstract by Hayes also reveals a contradicting effect that social media has had on sports, citing that it also provided an avenue for bullying and harassment on athletes.

Social media played an important role in overcoming the stresses of quarantine and the lockdowns. It provided a means of interaction, an environment where bonds were created on social media platforms. Families who lost their loved ones could seek some comfort through the spaces provided. Organizations maintained their due diligence by creating awareness and togetherness through advertising the importance of caring for one another. The displays of togetherness on social media helped some overcome certain challenges brought by the virus. People took on campaigns to emphasize the awareness of good mental health, and taking personal care was also stressed to the public through social media.

Social media has harmed mental illness. In research done by Liew and Koh, they describe loneliness as a concern in public health that was anticipated to increase during the Covid-19 pandemic given the global quarantine policy (par. 1). Loneliness stood as the cause of many turning to social media to share their experiences and seek interaction during the pandemic. The research done by Liew and Koh focused on the use of Twitter as a social media application. Their findings concluded that the public sentiments during the pandemic showed the usefulness of social media in tracking growing mental health issues (par. 4). There is, however, the risk attached to this form of stress and anxiety relief through social media. One research even recommends using social networks in loneliness, stress, and anxiety management on its abstract (Boursier et al.). The same research also cites that it presents a risk and opportunities in managing mental issues (par. 1).

Increase in anxiety levels courtesy of social media. In certain survey participants not only reported an increase in social media use but an increase in stress and anxiety levels (Boursier et al. ch.5 ). Scholar’s point out that social media created an environment for fear-mongering ( Sahni ch.8). With uncertainties brought about by social media, many use it to encourage others and spread false information, and trigger others into fear. Many displayed signs of panic through social media and people with the intentions of misleading people create incorrect information and spread it. The spread of terror, in turn, gave rise to a new pandemic referred to as the “social media hysteria on covid-19,” which was now difficult and next to impossible to fight ( Sahni ch.8).

Information on social media. Information on social media spreads fast, making social media a valuable mode of getting information to the masses. However, with the presence of malicious people or simply people misunderstanding information, knowledge sometimes becomes distorted. “Social media became a rich resource for seeking news and information and a strong public awareness tool” ( Sahni ch.9). In this regard, governments and some organizations created social media pages for this purpose. Information is being shared thick and fast through this means. Scholars have regarded social media as a “useful tool that provides opportunities to disseminate and receive relevant information” (Garcia et al.).

In light of the usefulness of social media in fighting the virus: The use of social media facilitated the public knowledge on covid-19 combating preparations, means of spreading, awareness on health and sanitation. Many became aware of the stringent measures their states or countries had put in place through social media. The vaccine development was open to the public eye through social media. Many campaigns on the internet emphasized the importance of teamwork, and many acted accordingly due to receiving proper information through social media.

Social media is another loophole for spreading fear and misinformation. The coronavirus set people into an emotional rollercoaster as it caused the death of many people. Uncertainty and the need for information grew, and misinformation followed. There was a huge demand for information about the covid-19 mandates, death tolls, infection rates, and vaccine development stages. Although the internet is a good source of information, it also serves to propagate misinformation. Misinformation on covid-19 spread on major platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram is regulated. Posts that peddle false information about the disease can be monitored and censored on major media. The bigger problem would be controlling wrong news on micro platforms. It would be a breach of privacy if companies would be monitoring micro-platforms in search of false. The use of instant messaging applications like WhatsApp and Messenger is where most of the falsified facts about covid-19 circulated ” ( Sahni ch.9).

The creation of social networks is made easier through social media. The strict Covid-19 mandates broke so many social connections. Social media can, however, be beneficial in that regard. Users interact and build social relationships and working links through spaces such as social media applications and websites. Constructive internet utilization can be by springing the economy back to life by creating a useful working environment through such platforms. However, reviving the economies through this means is decided by how the users choose to use the given media (Clark et al.). Social media is beneficial if used in positive ways, such as creating functional communities that focus on the well-being of society. Harmful ways of using the internet include cybercrime and impersonation.

Online social relationships pose a potential problem. As discussed, social media presents a much simpler means of creating networks, especially during a pandemic. But this online social relationship may pose a threat to the traditional means of human bonding. Physical interactions are crucial to one’s development, and the creation of online social circles could cause heightened loneliness (Ryan par. 1). This idea raises the question of whether online companionships’ invention has a positive or negative impact on society. We can not disregard the inherent solution of social media in solving the need for interaction.

People are trying to revive the economy through social media. The coronavirus disease pandemic impact on the economies of many countries was catastrophic. Scholars cite that the stringent measures to curb the disease brought about the collapse of major economies around the globe (Mohammed et al. 1). However, a solution to this lies in taking advantage of social media and creating an online presence for businesses. In an article, a scholar cites that getting into online marketing and social platforms during the pandemic is a productive way of utilizing social media in forming good inter-organizational relationships ( Gruner). In the same article, Gruner explains that using social media platforms creates an effective platform where managers can interact with trading partners in a less costly and manageable way.

Contrary to the above, organizations that have poor social media management are more likely to fail. An article gives examples of businesses that ended up on the wrong side of social rights movements due to bad social media management ( “Bad Social Media Marketing Examples”). Some companies also went downhill after using coronavirus as a marketing strategy, as given in another article ( Jarboe). Social media is a lucrative environment in terms of marketing, but if used in a not so strategic manner especially using the pandemic could be detrimental to a business.

Social media has influenced the work-from-home environment. The demanding covid-19 mandates pushed many businesses to adapt to new working methods such as the work from home policy. Social media has helped in terms of making communication between working mates easier. The social network plays a critical part in every organization because workers need to communicate and finish the task required (Sathish et al. sec. 2). The problem lies within the actual use of social media. Scholars have described the use of smartphones while working as “ problematic” and that it has consistently proved to behaviors that are a disfunction such as procrastination ( Rozzgonjuk et al.). Given that working from home is work with minimal to no supervision slacking is a problem to many companies working on that basis. Social media encourages laziness and procrastination, which creates a problem for organizations as employees do not meet their targets.

Online dating during the pandemic. Social media dating has also been on the rise due to restrictions. Its usefulness in helping people maintain not only their friendships but also create new romantic relationships. This is a huge benefit of social media on the dating scene, but the demerits of social media dating are also significant. People are using social media to create false identities of themselves. Tiggemann and Anderberg cite that people make illusions and images of seemingly perfect people, and for instance, Instagram is one such place (1). Individuals use these tactics also on dating sites and dupe other individuals into believing false information. This is a form of impersonation, which is the wrong thing to do. These set standards also cause people to think that the individuals they see on social media are better than them.

Social media addiction. Too much of something is truly poisonous. Social media has a major impact on one’s brain. The use of social media may lead to addiction. The content there is very enticing and given the state of being in quarantine predisposes one to idleness. Using social media fills that need, and one gets a rush of dopamine when browsing through the internet. Addiction leads to low productivity and low interest in carrying out any physical activity. Social media addiction is also linked closely to depression in many young people. A study concluded that depression predicted social media addiction (Haand 5). Another research done by Longstreet and Brooks also reveals that social media addiction is a strong cause of unhappiness and stress (44). Social media is indeed being used as a means of escapism by many young people and points out a larger problem in dealing with depression during the pandemic as many would turn to social media instead of focusing on their real issues.

In conclusion, Covid-19 influenced social and social media and impacted the situation surrounding the virus. Covid-19 both positively and negatively affected the global environment during the pandemic. However, if social media users take proper care, How we use the platforms determines its effect on society, especially during tough times like the pandemic. It is upon every individual to take responsibility in using social media and combating the virus.

Works Cited

Hayes, Michelle. “Social Media and Inspiring Physical Activity During COVID-19 and Beyond.” Taylor & Francis, 18 July 2020, www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/23750472.2020.1794939.

Garcia, Carlos et al. “ Social Media Can Have an Impact on How We Manage and Investigate the Covid-19 Pandemic. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology. 27 June 2020. https://www.jclinepi.com/article/S0895-4356(20)30652-1/fulltextRozgonjuk, Dmitri et al. “Social Media Use in Lectures Mediates the Relationship Between Procrastination and Problematic Smartphone use.” Computers in Human Behavior, December 2018. 89, 191-198.

Longstreet, Phill, and Brooks Stoney. “Life satisfaction: A key to Managing Internet and, Social media addiction.” Technology in Society, May 2017. 50, 73-77.

Clark, L. Jenna, et al. “Social Network Sites and, Well-Being: the Role of Social Connections.” Current Directions in Psychological Science,19 December 2017. 27(1), 32-37.

Gruner, L. Richard and Power, Damien. “To Integrate or Not to Integrate? Understanding B2B Social Media Communications.” Online Information Review. 12 February 2018. www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/OIR-04-2016-0116/full/htmlTiggemann, Marika and Aderberg, Isabella. “Social Media Is Not Real: The Effect of ‘Instagram vs. Reality Images on Women’s Social Comparison and Body Image.” New Media & Society, 22020. 22(12), 2183-2199.

Ryan, Tracii et al. “How Social are Social Media? A Review of Online Social Behavior and connectedness.” Journal of Relationships Research, 25 May2017.pg. 8.

Sathish, R. et al. “ A Report on The Impact of Information Technology and Social Media On Covi-19. IEEE, 18 January 2021. ieeexplore.ieee.org/abstract/document/9316046?casa_token=3Czg0m84P8MAAAAA:Ok-

Sahni, Heena. “Role of Social Media During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Beneficial, Destructive, or Reconstructive?” International Journal of Academic Medicine,29 June 2020. 2(6) pg.70-75

Jing, Tau, Liew, Koh. “How Loneliness Is Talked About in Social Media during COVID-19 Pandemic: Text Mining of 4,492 Twitter Feeds.” ScienceDirect, 7 Nov. 2020, www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022395620310748.

Bousier, Valentina et al. “Facing Loneliness and Anxiety During the COVID-19 Isolation: The Role of Excessive Social Media Use in a Sample of Italian Adults.” Frontiers In Psychiatry, 8 December 2020.

//dx.doi.org/10.3389%2Ffpsyt.2020.586222

Jarboe, Greg. “7 Brands That Are Looking Awful During the Coronavirus Pandemic.” Search Engine Journal, 23 April 2020, www.searchenginejournal.com/brands-looking-awful-during-coronavirus-pandemic/360970/#close.

“Bad Social Media Marketing Examples: 4 Real-Life Brands.” NR Digital Branding, 27 March. 2020, nrdigitalbranding.com/bad-social-media-marketing-4-business-examples.

Haand, Rahmatulla and Shuwang, Zhao. “The Relationship Between Social Media Addiction and Depression: a Quantitative Study Among University Students in Khost, Afghanistan.” International Journal of Adolescence and Youth,20 March 2020. https://doi.org/10.1080/02673843.2020.1741407

INNOVATION AND SUSTAINABILITY

INNOVATION AND SUSTAINABILITY

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TUTOR:

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Production basically refers to the creation of resources. However there are resources that occur naturally and would only wait for consumption. Such resources include the natural resources like the natural forests, rivers, lakes among other. However, there are also manmade resources that do create that will eventually be ready for use. These include the agricultural resources, industries among other resources. (Slattery, 2008)

Consumption on the other hand refers to the uses of these resources. These resources that do occur naturally or manmade are to be used and it is this process that we refer to as consumption.

Sometimes it is a bit technical to give an accurate definition of what habits are. The term habits looks ambiguous and I do believe that there are no habits that are universal to the human beings production and consumption. So for my case, I will bank on the hope that habits can as well refer to the way a person may decide to make a living.

There are various modes that people can use in the production and consumption. One of these modes is through industrial capitalism. Generally, people work for money in order to make a living. This money that we spent our time and energy for is again reverted to buying goods and services that we use for our daily use. These are the basic wants of every human being. You find that by using money or rather any currency there is involvement of a medium of exchange unlike some modes like agriculture where we may not need a medium of exchange. However we find that it is not easy to sustain industrial capitalism basing on the fact it has its base on the economic growth which is not definite and resources which can also exhaust. Critically looking at this, it is not easy to be certain that tomorrow there will be food to fully satisfy the demand of the people in the world. There are several things that determine the industrial capitalism thus making it not easy to predict its sustainability.

Secondly, there are places where the main way to go is through pastoralism. This means that their way of making a life is through their cattle. They get the products of their animals such as meat, milk and even eggs and feed on them. In production unlike the industrial capitalism that we have just discussed, there is less energy spent in production. However, they have to strategize in order to produce better. By being strategic, I mean that these people have to take care of their cattle by looking for green pastures for them, looking for drinking water for them and for those with domestic birds have to find a way of giving their birds of food. This type of production may also not necessarily be sustainable for it will basically depend on the availability of land to feed and to domesticating their animals. (Slattery, 2008)

In terms of consumption, the pastoralists find it very difficult in that there is double consumption. By saying that there is double consumption, I mean that the products as well as the pastoralists themselves do feed. The animals do depend on the greens and at the same time their owners depend on them for food and on the vegetables as well. So it can still be wise to deduce that there is energy spent by the products and at the same time, the process of acquiring needs energy. Here, the production mode is clearly coming to be domestication of these animals while the means of consumptions turn to be milking, herding, butchering and also the distribution and eating of this food. (Regmi, 2001)

In concluding this paper, I would like to point out some of the ways that can be taken to maintain the sustainability of these ways of production. The major mitigation measures that can be taken include keeping the population of the world in check in order to reduce the pressure on the resources.

Secondly, the number of cattle that is kept by these pastolaists should also be checked to reduce there effects on the limited resources. Apart from these, there the world population can try out better ways of production that will see the recycling the used resources. Through recycling the resources will be used fully. This what innovation can bring the world.

Bibliography

Slattery C. M. (2008) Contemporary Environmental Issues. Kendall/Hunt Hublishing Company, Texas, U.S.A.

Regmi, A. (ed) (2001).Changing Structure of Global Food Consumption Eve Publishers, Michigan

STEM learning (2)

HYPERLINK “https://www.nytimes.com/2022/09/26/business/global-economy-oecd-forecast.html” https://www.nytimes.com/2022/09/26/business/global-economy-oecd-forecast.html

According to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, the war between Ukraine and Russia has resulted to great impacts on the global economy. Economies around the globe are expected to slow down more than expected according to a new forecast from the OECD. The world economy is slowing down at an alarming rate according to a new forecast from the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development. The organization released the updated forecast on November 29th, 2015, which predicts that developing economies will contract more than anticipated in 2016 and especially 2018 with only Asia set to avoid this fate slightly in 2017.

According to analysts that spoke with Reuters, countries including Brazil and Argentina could contract by 0.4% over the next three years because of these economic impacts of Ukraine-Russia war. Additionally, China’s GDP growth will also decrease due to financial deleveraging policy applied by authorities.

According to this article Europe is the most vulnerable region where numerous countries face the threat of recession. The most affected countries will be Greece, Portugal, Cyprus, Italy and Spain. In total, the European economy is expected to contract by 0.2% in 2016.

According to this article each year the OECD releases a forecast for the world economy based on its members’ current economic policies and domestic fiscal circumstances. The OECD expects this year’s global growth of 3.3% to decline to 2.9% in 2017. The decline is also due to slower growth in euro area countries and a negative outlook for North America and Japan owing to troubles related with emerging markets.

High price of food and energy have led to increased inflation causing the slowdown of the world economy. The OECD expects the consumer prices to increase by 1.6% this year and next. The OECD also expects unemployment rates to rise around the world, especially in Greece and Portugal where people are expected to become unemployed due to financial crisis and austerity measures.

t’s Time For Business Leaders To Come Together On Mental Health

HYPERLINK “https://www.forbes.com/sites/deloitte/2021/03/30/its-time-for-business-leaders-to-come-together-on-mental-health/?sh=1a0463804183” It’s Time For Business Leaders To Come Together On Mental Health (forbes.com)

This article in Forbes has been written by Emma Codd who is a global inclusion leader. She talks of how mental health has become an important issue in the business world. This is because several times there has been a problem of people not being able to perform perfectly due to their mental health issues which are generally stress and depression. Due to these issues therefore the business world is adversely being affected since a depressed person cannot be productive. She gives different reasons for the causes of depressions which include; lack of support in the workplace; deadlines to meet which are strict, very difficult projects to work on, very high expectations, lack of control, lack of proper development when one is a child, being unable to open up or express oneself, long term career and financial outlooks, family welfare among other reasons.

The reason for this post is that it is a perfect post for horizon scanning since it has been written very recently in 30th March 2021. It focuses on the future of the business world and how it can be affected by mental health issues among the employees.

What will life look like after most people get the vaccine? – FuturityThis article from futurity talks of how lives have changed due to corona virus pandemic and how life is expected to change now that an anti-virus has been established. It talks of how this is going to affect people’s social life, the manner in which a person lives, the education sector and so much more about the life of a person. This article therefore is a perfect one for horizon scanning since it focuses on the future of the world in light of corona virus and how this is going to affect the world we live in. even though there is not fixed view of how life will be after most or everyone gets the antivirus there are speculations that some people will be uncomfortable with the anti-virus and only take it because it is what is expected to guarantee their life with the other people.

This information therefore it is important for horizon scanning since the future is still unclear but there are assumptions which can be deduced from the information presented. This article was written on 12th April 2021.

SHORT ESSAY.

History

Name of Student

Institutional Affiliation

SHORT ESSAY.

Origins of the Cold War.

The cold war between the United States and the Soviet Union began after the Second World War. Several reasons influenced the cold war. The production of a nuclear weapon by both nations influenced the cold war. The United States and the Soviet Union were wary of each other. The two nations were against the production of nuclear weapons so each country wanted the other to stop the production of nuclear weapons. The United States was against communism. Communism was a famous ideology in the Soviet Union and its emergence in the United States caused a lot of panics. The ideological differences between the United States and the Soviet Union triggered the cold war according to Gaddis (2000).

Response to Lesson Learned.

Both the United States and the Soviet Union finally decided to end the cold war. The two nations agreed to monitor and control their military power so that they cannot cause the third world war. The two nations never wanted to engage in a war since they well understood the ramifications of the war. The two nations finally respected the ideological differences between them and they had to let people choose what suited them the most. The united states and the soviet union reduced their military advancements as they thought this will reduce the chances of another world war.

Geopolitical Flashpoints.

Truman’s major geopolitical flashpoints that steered his decision making between 1945 and 1960 include; the need for the national security act, the Truman doctrine that was important during his tenure, the establishment of NATO who were his important allies, and the expansive military with substantive nuclear weaponry. Eisenhower’s tenure was marked by open discussions on internal and external deals, retaliation, and the expansion of the military.

LONG ESSAY.

The concentration of Power.

Since the inception of the United States government, different ideas have shaped the concentration of power. The federal government’s power and those of the state governments has been reviewed over time. This has prompted the government to introduce several acts that check the powers of the two levels of the government. Amendments such as the 5th and the 14th amendments have evolved from the ideas of what has happened previously in the United States.

Trusting the Federal Forces.

The federal government got involved with the civil rights activists and it would consult on what they wanted. President Johnson was keen on finding legislative solutions through congress that will redress the injustice and discrimination that was rampant then. The legislative solution invoked the roles of the federal government to protect the civil and political rights of people and the promotion of economic and social justice. The government showed goodwill to the civil rights activists therefore; the civil rights activists entrusted the freedom to the federal forces. The government’s willingness to listen to the civil rights activists also led them to trust it with the freedom they were championing.

Reagan’s Tenure.

The conservative activists sought to be politically active so that they would voice their concerns and champion for the rights. They used several tactics to voice the issues that they thought were important. They used televangelism television shows to raise their issue. They as well employed tactics such as mailing campaigns, organized rallies, and telephone hotlines to mobilize and raise the important topics. Their tactics were more conservative but they successfully articulated their issues.

Changes through the Cold war to Contemporary Times.

During the early cold war, the United States was strict to maintain pure its ideologies and keep away the communist ideology. Those who sympathized with the communist ideology were executed and lost their jobs. During President Lyndon B. Johnson’s tenure, he introduced the great society whereby one of the main aims was to abolish the inequality. The civil rights at this moment had to wage their campaigns and the introduction of the act was a great boost to them. They had the support of the government thus their mission was almost accomplished. The period of the Vietnam War saw a divide united states. The civil rights activists were against the United States soldiers helping in the Vietnam War due to the number of the causalities. However, some supported the inclusion of the United States army. The Watergate scandal happened during President Nixon’s tenure in office. Nixon had conspired with the top government officials to ensure his re-election. This scandal led to the resignation of President Nixon who otherwise would have been impeached. 48 people were sentenced after found guilty out of the sixty-nine that was under investigation. This scandal got the attention of the public and it seemed they distrusted the government.

Reagan is reign was one of the warmly felt modern presidencies. By the time he left office, his presidency was approved to 68% one of the highest. He reduced government spending and taxes but he increased military spending. Generally, his ideas were accepted except for a few like the Iraq war that received criticism. During the neoliberalism period, most people stood for their rights and they fought against the injustices that were melted upon the minor races in the United States. To today, the rights to articulate the person’s mind have been enhanced in the United States through the struggle still is on according to Gaddis (1987).

The usefulness of the Federal Government.

The federal government has proved many times to protect the rights and freedoms of the people. The amendments and several acts that have been enacted over time have proven the government’s commitment. The government has also supported a strong judiciary that has ensured the rule of law is maintained according to Dudziak (2011). For instance, the 14th amendment was an addition of rights that individuals can enjoy. The government has also acted in a manner that it has threatened public trust. For instance, President Nixon’s scandal almost made the public lose its trust in the government.

American governance.

The bad examples always influence and shape public opinions. They are also the major influencers to the constitutional change. For instance, the need to have better articulate rights and freedoms was due to the injustices in a section of people. the injustices informed the constitutional changes. The political power has influenced the American identity and culture. The two parties; the Democrats and the Republicans are parties that have developed on identity and cultural ideologies. The Democrats are mostly people of color and the Republican majorly the white from the north.

References

Dudziak, M. L. (2011). Cold war civil rights: Race and the image of American democracy (Vol. 73). Princeton University Press.

Gaddis, J. L. (1987). The long peace: Inquiries into the history of the cold war. Oxford University Press on Demand.

Gaddis, J. L. (2000). The United States and the origins of the Cold War, 1941-1947. Columbia University Press.

RESEARCH OBJECTIVE 2

Contents

TOC o “1-3” h z u 1. Introduction PAGEREF _Toc12062 11.1 Research Objectives PAGEREF _Toc2576 11.2 Research Road Map and Main Argument PAGEREF _Toc12456 12. Literature Review PAGEREF _Toc26763 22.1 Health And Safety Issues PAGEREF _Toc2059 22.1.1 Physical Risks PAGEREF _Toc13694 22.1.2 Chemical Risks PAGEREF _Toc9469 32.1.3 Psychological Risks PAGEREF _Toc23534 32.2 Finding Skilled Workers PAGEREF _Toc8197 42.2.1 Rapid Development of New Technology PAGEREF _Toc28017 42.2.2 Insufficient Workforce PAGEREF _Toc31434 52.2.3 Construction Skills Gap PAGEREF _Toc27094 62.3 Workplace Diversity PAGEREF _Toc12185 62.3.1 Language and Communication PAGEREF _Toc23818 72.3.2 Gender Equality PAGEREF _Toc29239 72.3.3 Ethnic and Cultural Differences PAGEREF _Toc19744 82.4 Payroll PAGEREF _Toc21572 92.4.1 Tracking Overtime PAGEREF _Toc425 92.4.2 Late payments PAGEREF _Toc20921 92.4.3 Misclassifying Employees PAGEREF _Toc14015 103 Research Design PAGEREF _Toc11841 113.1 Observations PAGEREF _Toc8556 113.1.1 Surveys PAGEREF _Toc4742 113.2 Data Analysis PAGEREF _Toc6235 123.2.1 Statistical Analysis PAGEREF _Toc4256 123. Conclusion PAGEREF _Toc2802 14

Human Resource Challenges Facing Construction Companies In France

IntroductionThe booming construction industry in Europe especially in France, has brought along Human Resource (HR) issues related to work safety, finding qualified staff, payroll, and advancement in technology. However, the issues mentioned above are crucial for various stakeholders in the construction industry, including project managers, contractors, suppliers, architects, and customers.

Considering the wide range of construction industry in France, many organizations, including construction companies, contractors, subcontractors and many people from different backgrounds, have encountered various problems with human resource management. So, this article will investigate the key human resource challenges facing construction companies in France.

Research ObjectivesTo identify the challenges faced by human resource management in hiring and managing employees in France construction companies.

To determine the specific factors creating those issues and how to manage them, to ensure productivity.

To Assess emerging issues in contemporary human resource that affects the flow of operations in construction companies.

To explore the possible recommended solutions to solve human resource management challenges facing construction companies in France.

Research Road Map and Main Argument

The major HRM issues faced by most France based construction companies include health safety issues, finding skilled labor, workplace diversity, and payroll issues (Hussin, Rahman and Mamun, 2013). In trying to assess these issues, the literature review will evaluate the previous research related to the same in order to gain more insights regarding these concepts and later present a research design for further study.

This is mean that the major HRM challenges facing the construction industry in France today include health and safety problems, getting qualified workforce, diversity in the workplace, and salaries and wage payments.

Literature ReviewHealth And Safety IssuesInternational labor organizations indicated that health and safety in the construction industry are becoming more extensive than it had been before (Murie, 2007). With the progress of the times, construction designs have developed with hence requiring more complex procedures that endanger the safety and health of workers in the company. These risks are into three divisions: Physical, Chemical and Psychological risks.

Physical RisksThe construction industry involves much of technical work hence prone to physical injuries from the work environment and building materials. Most buildings constructed currently are storey building with many floors, which subject workers to falling objects such as building blocks that may hit them from upper floors or the workers themselves falling from higher levels to the ground. Also, physical exertion and strenuous workloads such as heavy lifting, pushing and snagging, which may cause physical injuries and musculoskeletal pain (Ajslev et al., 2016)

According to Murie, 2007, physical injuries are increasing due to the growing construction industry and the development of new clients’ needs and preferences. Accidents are prone to occur in construction sites as materials are bulky, and a fall may create a significant injury on a worker. The knowledge on such risk gives the need for personal protective equipment such as protective gloves, hearing protection, and face shields. Protective clothing exists since the risks may affect the performance of the company. Improvement of construction materials also increases the risk of accidents; so, physical risks are becoming more common.

Chemical RisksConstruction raw materials used for the production of composites contain harmful mineral binders and high radiation products that affect employees in the companies (Kowalik et al., 2019). Mineral binders contain chemicals such as tricalcium silicate and tricalcium aluminate, which, when exposed to a humid environment, becomes dangerous to the human body. The substances affect respiratory organs and sense organs, consequently reducing production and workers’ activities. Due to dust, materials such as cement can easily cause respiratory infections. When people inhale the dust, it can harm the inner walls of the respiratory organs, causing prevention and disease.

According to (Kolwak et al., 2019), most construction materials contain chemicals that are also poisonous, and workers are ignorant of the influence. Paints also have a strong smell due to resins, that strengthen the paint durability. The strong smell affects the nose and eyes, causing irritations; hence workers cannot engage as required. These discomfort issues are a challenge to the construction companies as the chemicals are essential in the building. Protective clothing may fail to prevent the chemicals from getting into contact with the human body.

Psychological Risks

Construction companies are susceptible to mental health issues due to exposure to job-related psychological stress, such as high-performance pressures and complex decision making (Oswald, Borg, and Sherratt, 2019). Construction work requires a lot of energy and involvement, which if not well managed, may affect workers mentally or negatively impact their psychological processes. According to (Tiwal, 2013), four significant factors contribute to the level of stress among construction workers. These factors include too much work, pressure, demanding deadlines, and conflicting demands between workers and management. Pressure caused by time limits and performance expectations is the leading cause of mental issues among construction workers.

The construction workers are human, and the environment where they live in may either make them uncomfortable or cause psychological distress. For companies to attain their goals, they need to have targets, which have to be achieved by the workers. The urge to accomplish the goal leads to put pressure on workers’ involvement. If managers do not consider the factors that affect them in the work environment, they will have stressful experiences, which will psychologically affect them, leading to low or poor performance. As a result, the company will not be able to achieve the set goals.

Finding Skilled WorkersConstruction work is highly dependent on skilled labor to complete companies’ production operations. However, there has been significant skills shortage affecting time, cost, and quality of work (Mohamed, Pärn and Edwards, 2017). Poorly skilled workers require some training and directions to do the right thing, which takes time and cost. Also, the quality of work produced by an unskilled person with lower standards. Finding skilled workers is a challenge for construction companies due to: Rapid development of new technology; Insufficient Workforce; Construction Skills Gap.

Rapid Development of New TechnologyLow supply and unavailability of qualified ICT personnel have become a challenge due to high technological innovation and new ICT developments (Brixiova, Li and Yousef, 2009). Technology has been developing rapidly, also affecting the construction industry. The emergence of new machines requires experienced workers who can effectively operate them for proficient performance. Finding this skilled labor force is a challenge for construction companies, as many people do not grasp the skills needed to run the machines. According to (Brown, 2019), as manufacturing processes improve, with automation and technological advances, the skilled workforce gap continues to increase. The technically experienced workforce is aging and retiring, with no younger population taking over.

Technology will continue to advance, so new machines and processes will be developed for the construction industry. People are not responding to the latest developments by looking for skills to operate machines, resulting in a shortage of skilled workers. The skilled population at the time are also becoming outdated as the equipment used before are not the same ones used currently. This shortage negatively impacts construction companies as it leads to reduced productivity and failures to reach objectives.

Insufficient WorkforceTrained workers in the construction industry are diminishing as the growing population prefer indoor activities and relate construction work to income inequality. According to (Brown, 2019), construction work is being neglected by the millennial society as they are moving away from hand-on jobs to indoor activities and working in offices. This mentality leads to a failure to get training on construction machines and processes hence less trained individuals within the population. Also, the construction industry is growing, with more companies emerging. Therefore, the number of qualified workers in society is insufficient to support the growing industry. Due to the high demand and less supply of workers, many companies fail to access trained labor.

The young population considers manual work as low waged jobs and requiring a lot of effort to accomplish. Most individuals wish for lesser work with more pay hence get trained o other fields leaving the construction sector with a lower number of people. The fewer individuals who decide to get construction training to fail to serve the growing construction companies hence making it challenging to find skilled workers.

Construction Skills GapThe construction industry has undergone a lot of changes; therefore, new skills and roles are emerging, with no skilled workforce to cover (Ukconstructionmedia.co.uk, 2019). Human effort is the most vital factor in construction companies to ensure the accomplishment of objectives. Having a shortage of skilled labor is profoundly impacting the performance of companies. The skills gap increases the costs for projects as it takes a longer time to complete, which is also a limitation for the clients. With the development of technology, roles such as ICT(Information and Communications Technology) officers and developers are appearing, which requires qualified personnel to effectively fill these positions.

High skill is in providing a quality service of a product. This requirement ensures the importance of hiring qualified staff in the construction companies to get excellent performance. As the industry is improving, with new designs, improved materials, and, most significant advancement in technology, new roles and skills emerge. To fill the positions, one an experience in a function to provides the best services leading to better performances. To fill these positions, people need to experience a feature to provide the best service for better performance. The lack of skilled labor in the population makes it difficult to work effectively.

Workplace DiversityThe labor force comes from different places, but as they join the company, they have to actively and effectively contribute to a common goal. The factors that make workplace diversity a challenge for construction companies are: Language and Communication; Gender Equality; Cultural Differences.

Language and CommunicationWorkplace diversity leads to communication and language challenges, which affect construction companies as a conversation is one of the most critical competencies required for high performance (Burkard, Boticki, and Madson, 2002). Communication is essential in production; hence workers need proper language setup to enhance communication. According to (Hoezen, Reymen and Dewulf, 2006), the efficiency and effectiveness of the construction process strongly depend on the quality of communication. Different backgrounds of workers create the communication barrier due to the existence of diverse languages and ethics. In order to produce effectively, diversity must be accommodated and methods designed for effective communication. Language and communication challenges may arise due to diverse cultures and setups. The difference makes it challenging for construction companies to hire its workers as consolidating them is difficult. Construction companies are project-based; hence communication is vital for its operations. Diverse languages limits project efficiency and competencies, leading to low performances.

Gender EqualityDiversity sources may be treating technological and project-based work as masculine; hence companies are limited to preferring a particular gender to the other, even if one is competent enough (Emuze, Smallwood and Han, 2014). Construction work involves a lot of heavy work, and since men are considered energetic, most of the work is deemed to be masculine. Therefore, the companies are limited to finding male workers, since female gender fail to accept construction jobs. According to (Sang and Powell, 2012), the construction sector is the most male-dominated sector since women who try working there experience cultural and structural barriers such as discrimination and long working hours, which quickly leads to stress. Consequently, these factors affect human resources for construction companies in France.

Substantial work appears to be for the male gender. This mentality makes the female generation shy away from working in construction companies. Furthermore, the impacts and challenges, such as harassment and limited opportunities that come with working in the sector, scare away women. Therefore, construction companies tend to employ male gender for high performance and better productivity.

Ethnic and Cultural DifferencesCultural differences reflect on human relations, ethics, and habits, which affect workers emotionally, contributing to a loss of concentration and poor performance (Mbazor and Okuoma, 2014). In national culture researches, culture difference exists in four dimensions; power distance, individualism, uncertainty avoidance, and masculinity or feminism. These differences affect human resource management and hiring due to a common goal while working in the company. A quantitative study of ten construction companies found that cultural differences affect overall company performance. Culture contributes to people’s habits and moral, which, when not well managed, affects the performance of workers. Different cultures have different beliefs that need consolidation to obtain the objectives of the company. Diversity affects the decisions of management, which directs the daily operations of the company. Also, interference of these habits and relations may affect the individuals, leading to stress, loss of determination to work, and reduced or low performance in work. Therefore, it challenges human resources in hiring its workers and finding the right people for the positions in the company.

PayrollPayment is a challenge in the construction industry, as most jobs are manual, and there are no stipulated payment amounts for each type of job (Grimshaw, 2016). Construction companies develop their different payment strategies that do not match with other firms hence irregular payment rates.

Tracking OvertimeLack of a developed technique for tracking overtime workers and dishonesty makes it challenging to get the required information for the allocation of payments (Hussin, Rahman, and Memon, 2013). Working for long hours than the stipulated time is rampant in construction companies. The long working calls for overtime payments, which use several formulas to calculate. These formulas may fail to be liked by the employees. Also, the management may not always be there to check workers’ work overtime, and those who leave early; therefore, payments may happen to nonworking individuals.

Honesty among employees may not always be trusted as people wish to get money without working for it. Dishonesty may lead some workers to provide wrong information on the time they have worked to get paid. It is also possible to pay one more or less for some work done due to improper payment calculation techniques for various roles in the construction industry. Human resource management of construction companies in Europe finds it challenging to make payments or stipulate payroll for its workers.

Late paymentsWorkers usually need their payments to be made on time; hence late payments demoralize the workforce leading to poor performance (Kazaz, Ulubeyli, and Tuncbilekli, 2012). Workers work to earn income for their needs, thus require their payments made on time. Payments made on time is also a form of motivation for the employees. Besides, late payments damage the excellent image of the company, irrespective of the causes. As workers get paid late, it reflects in the performance of the company hence damaging the image of the company.

Salaries and wages are one factor that keeps the employees working. When payments are delay, workers lose interest in the companies hence poorly perform their roles compared to punctual payments. Motivation is vital in human resource management. As workers get guaranteed prompt payments, they get the interest to work more and perform best hence increasing productivity.

Misclassifying EmployeesEmerging roles in the technological basis lack a specific classification in the companies’ human resources hence lack a particular evaluation of their payments (Grimshaw, 2016). Misclassification is a growing concern, especially in developed countries, including France. It is an act punishable by law but conducted to reduce the costs and taxes incurred to the government. It occurs when employee classification occurs under independent contracts rather than governmental workers. Companies should avoid misclassification to operate well since such crimes may lead to a negative impact on the company.

Emerging roles due to changing operations in construction industries have led to a lack of knowledge on how to classify the functions. Some companies also misclassify contractors to reduce the costs paid to the government. However, these acts negatively impact the companies due to changes they have to make in case legal requirements need to be followed. Evaluating payments is a challenge for most of the companies.

Research Design

The quantitative research approach emphasizes statistical analysis of the data collected. It involves numbers and actual data used during surveys to get findings and results or obtain the objectives of the research. Therefore, the data collection method of physical observation and investigation is helpful to the accuracy and reliability of the research results.

3.1 ObservationsData on some of the challenges of construction companies such as health and safety issues and workplace diversity could quickly occur through observation (Kawuliwich, 2005). Observations provide quantification and measurement based on actual acts seen. Therefore, analysis is done based on the observation approach is valid and represents real facts of construction company challenges. According to (Mohammed and Edwards, 2017), observation of workers and construction companies’ management provides information on the challenges faced in the work environment. It is more reliable than the assumed data.

Data on construction companies’ challenges, such as physical risks, can only be collected through observation of the operations of companies. Observing gives more reliable information than replies given by the workers or the company management as they may as well lie to protect their image. The observed issues also reflect though the performance of the company.

SurveysSurveys provide an actual, broad perspective and reliable statistical data from research conducted on a sample of the construction workforce population (Carrillo, 1994). Surveys depend on a sample of people in the society, giving information on a given subject. A review may occur using questionnaires and interviews on the part of the targeted population. Inquiries include short questions for the target sample to answer. Mbazor and Okuoma (2014) used an observation approach to research on the multicultural workforce. The findings gotten supported that cultural diversity affects workers, and the environment influences the health and safety of workers. Surveys give appropriate information on the state of construction companies.

The survey research approach also provides analytical and statistical findings that are convenient. Interviews and questionnaires provide first-hand information from those who encounter problems in the study of finding challenges that affect construction company employees. Also, data collection from various companies ensures information analyzed represents most of the companies in the industry and not only one specific one, make the data more general and extensive..

Data AnalysisAfter data collection, analysis has to take place to examine or study the data to extract relevant information that makes the findings. The research question acquires answers through the investigation.

Statistical AnalysisThe data acquired was in respect to the research question- to find the critical human resource challenges facing the construction companies in France. According to Alhajeri (2011), a questionnaire on safety and health problem challenge showed that 69% of the companies had no written policies, while only 31% had laid out strategies. This analysis indicated that health and safety issue is a challenge for most of the construction companies, and some companies are trying to prevent loses through the development of policies to protect its workers. Nevertheless, the number of companies is still less.

According to Bukard & Madson (2002), research on diversity indicates that most of the construction companies are affected by language and cultural diversities in its human resource strategies of hiring. France consists of various ethnic groups, including Slavic, Romance, and Germanic languages; hence the people in the population are mixed up. Therefore, while acquiring workers in the company, construction human resource management has to consider diversity issues and, after hiring, ensure that communication is enhanced and workers work to achieve the same goal. The research supports the fact that diversity affects human resource management in construction companies.

The researchers used in this review indicate that safety and health issues, diversity, and payroll are the key human resource issues that affect construction companies in France, research report indicates 47% of accidents and injury challenges, which is lower than other researches; also, psychological strains were reported at 60.4% due to low wages, anxiety, and repetitive work. The feeling of unsatisfaction and in most of the high-performance expectations are the significant causes of psychological risks among workers (Tiwany and Nayak 2013). The results showed that accidents are a regular occurrence in construction industries and that psychological risks affect most of the workers.

Skilled workers problem has been increasing in most of the researches conducted due to fewer people joining construction training facilities. The shortage rate is above 60%, which shows that the challenge is too high, and soon, there would be no skilled construction machine operators in the job market (Brixiova, Li and Yousef, 2009). New technology is the leading cause of untrained workers as it keeps changing and developing, but with fewer people willing to learn the new operations. Thus, there is a huge gap in construction skills.

However, these challenges may reduce by developing strategies for sustainable development (Hussin, Rahman, and Memon, 2013). Human resource is the most contributing factor to the performance of construction companies in France. Therefore, suggestions to develop payroll strategies, have health and safety standards, and find ways to handle diversity. Such acts reduce the frequency of challenges faced by construction companies. Establishing an effective management system that incorporates different cultural backgrounds is vital in the achievement of a successful project (Kivrak, Ross, Arslan and Tunkan, 2009). Understanding and accepting the challenges affecting the country helps to overcome the problems by thinking critically to solve the issues.

ConclusionThe main challenges faced by human resources in construction industries are health and safety risks, lack of skilled workforce, diversity, and payment rate issues for the workers. Construction companies rely on the efforts of workers to achieve their objectives. The human resource is the main factor of production along with the funds. The first issue, health, and safety issues, maybe physical risks or injuries caused by chemicals used in the construction materials and psychological risks caused by stress at work. Secondly, the lack of skilled labor is on the rise in France as companies fail to get trained people in construction skills. Technology is its primary cause, as knowledge of development is scarce. Thirdly, diversity in the workforce due to language and communication barriers, gender inequality, and diverse ethnic groups create a barrier for continuity of operations as communication is essential in performing every activity. Also, the fourth challenge lies in payroll due to lack of payment strategy, misclassifying of workers, and late payments to workers. The researchers used a quantitative approach to answer their research question and to find solutions to the challenges of construction companies in its human resources.

ReferencesAjslev, J., Brandt, M., Møller, J., Skals, S., Vinstrup, J., Jakobsen, M., Sundstrup, E., Madeleine, P., and Andersen, L. (2016). Reducing Physical Risk Factors in Construction Work Through a Participatory Intervention: Protocol for a Mixed-Methods Process Evaluation. JMIR Research Protocols, 5(2), p.e89.

Alhajeri, M. (2011) Health and safety in the construction industry: challenges and solutions in the UAE. Unpublished Thesis. Coventry: Coventry University.

Black, R., Engbersen, G., & Okólski, M. (Eds.). (2010). A continent moving west?: EU enlargement and labour migration from Central and Eastern Europe. Amsterdam University Press.

Brixiova, Z., Li, W. and Yousef, T. (2009). Skill shortages and labor market outcomes in Central Europe. Economic Systems, 33(1), pp.45-59.

Brown, A. (2019). Construction’s skills shortage. International Construction.

Burkard, A., Boticki, M. and Madson, M. (2002). Workplace Discrimination, Prejudice, and Diversity Measurement: A Review of Instrumentation. Journal of Career Assessment, 10(3), pp.343-361.

Carrillo, P. (1994). Technology transfer: A survey of international construction companies. Construction Management and Economics, 12(1), pp.45-51.

Cooke, T., & Lingard, H. (2011). A retrospective analysis of work-related deaths in the Australian construction industry. In ARCOM Twenty-seventh Annual Conference (pp. 279-288). Association of Researchers in Construction Management (ARCOM).

Emuze, F., Smallwood, J. and Han, S. (2014). Factors contributing to non-value adding activities in South African construction. Journal of Engineering, Design and Technology, 12(2), pp.223-243.

Grimshaw, D. (2016). Minimum wages, pay equity and comparative industrial relations. New York, NY: Routledge.

Hoezen, M., Reymen, I. and Dewulf, G. (2006). The problem of communication in construction. Researchgate.

Ukconstructionmedia.co.uk. (2019). How to tackle the skills gap head on – UK Construction Online. [online] Available at: https://www.ukconstructionmedia.co.uk/features/tackle-skills-gap-head/ [Accessed 4 Jan. 2020].

Hussin, J. M., Rahman, I. A., & Memon, A. H. (2013). The way forward in sustainable construction: issues and challenges. International Journal of Advances in Applied Sciences, 2(1), 15-24.

Kawuliwich, B. (2005). Participant Observation as a Data Collection Method. FQS, 6(2).

Kazaz, A., Ulubeyli, S., & Tuncbilekli, N. A. (2012). Causes of delays in construction projects in Turkey. Journal of Civil Engineering and Management, 18(3), 426-435.

Kivrak, S., Ross, A., Arslan, G. and Tunkan, M. (2009). Impacts of cultural differences on project success in construction. Research Gate.

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Mohamed, M., Pärn, E. and Edwards, D. (2017). Brexit: measuring the impact upon skilled labour in the UK construction industry. International Journal of Building Pathology and Adaptation, 35(3), pp.264-279.

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RESEARCH OBJECTIVE 1

Contents

TOC o “1-3” h z u 1. Introduction PAGEREF _Toc12062 11.1 Research Objectives PAGEREF _Toc2576 11.2 Research Road Map and Main Argument PAGEREF _Toc12456 12. Literature Review PAGEREF _Toc26763 22.1 Health And Safety Issues PAGEREF _Toc2059 22.1.1 Physical Risks PAGEREF _Toc13694 22.1.2 Chemical Risks PAGEREF _Toc9469 32.1.3 Psychological Risks PAGEREF _Toc23534 32.2 Finding Skilled Workers PAGEREF _Toc8197 42.2.1 Rapid Development of New Technology PAGEREF _Toc28017 42.2.2 Insufficient Workforce PAGEREF _Toc31434 52.2.3 Construction Skills Gap PAGEREF _Toc27094 62.3 Workplace Diversity PAGEREF _Toc12185 62.3.1 Language and Communication PAGEREF _Toc23818 72.3.2 Gender Equality PAGEREF _Toc29239 72.3.3 Ethnic and Cultural Differences PAGEREF _Toc19744 82.4 Payroll PAGEREF _Toc21572 92.4.1 Tracking Overtime PAGEREF _Toc425 92.4.2 Late payments PAGEREF _Toc20921 92.4.3 Misclassifying Employees PAGEREF _Toc14015 103 Research Design PAGEREF _Toc11841 113.1 Observations PAGEREF _Toc8556 113.1.1 Surveys PAGEREF _Toc4742 113.2 Data Analysis PAGEREF _Toc6235 123.2.1 Statistical Analysis PAGEREF _Toc4256 123. Conclusion PAGEREF _Toc2802 14

Human Resource Challenges Facing Construction Companies In France

IntroductionThe booming construction industry in Europe especially in France, has brought along Human Resource (HR) issues related to work safety, finding qualified staff, payroll, and advancement in technology. However, the issues mentioned above are crucial for various stakeholders in the construction industry, including project managers, contractors, suppliers, architects, and customers.

Considering the wide range of construction industry in France, many organizations, including construction companies, contractors, subcontractors and many people from different backgrounds, have encountered various problems with human resource management. So, this article will investigate the key human resource challenges facing construction companies in France.

Research ObjectivesTo identify the challenges faced by human resource management in hiring and managing employees in France construction companies.

To determine the specific factors creating those issues and how to manage them, to ensure productivity.

To Assess emerging issues in contemporary human resource that affects the flow of operations in construction companies.

To explore the possible recommended solutions to solve human resource management challenges in construction companies.

Research Road Map and Main Argument

The major HRM issues faced by most European based construction companies include health safety issues, finding skilled labor, workplace diversity, and payroll issues (Hussin, Rahman and Mamun, 2013). In trying to assess these issues, the literature review will evaluate the previous research related to the same in order to gain more insights regarding these concepts and later present a research design for further study.

This is mean that the major HRM challenges facing the construction industry in Europe today include health and safety problems, getting qualified workforce, diversity in the workplace, and salaries and wage payments.

Literature ReviewHealth And Safety IssuesInternational labor organizations indicated that health and safety in the construction industry are becoming more extensive than it had been before (Murie, 2007). With the progress of the times, construction designs have developed with hence requiring more complex procedures that endanger the safety and health of workers in the company. These risks are into three divisions: Physical, Chemical and Psychological risks.

Physical RisksThe construction industry involves much of technical work hence prone to physical injuries from the work environment and building materials. Most buildings constructed currently are storey building with many floors, which subject workers to falling objects such as building blocks that may hit them from upper floors or the workers themselves falling from higher levels to the ground. Also, physical exertion and strenuous workloads such as heavy lifting, pushing and snagging, which may cause physical injuries and musculoskeletal pain (Ajslev et al., 2016)

According to Murie, 2007, physical injuries are increasing due to the growing construction industry and the development of new clients’ needs and preferences. Accidents are prone to occur in construction sites as materials are bulky, and a fall may create a significant injury on a worker. The knowledge on such risk gives the need for personal protective equipment such as protective gloves, hearing protection, and face shields. Protective clothing exists since the risks may affect the performance of the company. Improvement of construction materials also increases the risk of accidents; so, physical risks are becoming more common.

Chemical RisksConstruction raw materials used for the production of composites contain harmful mineral binders and high radiation products that affect employees in the companies (Kowalik et al., 2019). Mineral binders contain chemicals such as tricalcium silicate and tricalcium aluminate, which, when exposed to a humid environment, becomes dangerous to the human body. The substances affect respiratory organs and sense organs, consequently reducing production and workers’ activities. Due to dust, materials such as cement can easily cause respiratory infections. When people inhale the dust, it can harm the inner walls of the respiratory organs, causing prevention and disease.

According to (Kolwak et al., 2019), most construction materials contain chemicals that are also poisonous, and workers are ignorant of the influence. Paints also have a strong smell due to resins, that strengthen the paint durability. The strong smell affects the nose and eyes, causing irritations; hence workers cannot engage as required. These discomfort issues are a challenge to the construction companies as the chemicals are essential in the building. Protective clothing may fail to prevent the chemicals from getting into contact with the human body.

Psychological Risks

Construction companies are susceptible to mental health issues due to exposure to job-related psychological stress, such as high-performance pressures and complex decision making (Oswald, Borg, and Sherratt, 2019). Construction work requires a lot of energy and involvement, which if not well managed, may affect workers mentally or negatively impact their psychological processes. According to (Tiwal, 2013), four significant factors contribute to the level of stress among construction workers. These factors include too much work, pressure, demanding deadlines, and conflicting demands between workers and management. Pressure caused by time limits and performance expectations is the leading cause of mental issues among construction workers.

The construction workers are human, and the environment where they live in may either make them uncomfortable or cause psychological distress. For companies to attain their goals, they need to have targets, which have to be achieved by the workers. The urge to accomplish the goal leads to put pressure on workers’ involvement. If managers do not consider the factors that affect them in the work environment, they will have stressful experiences, which will psychologically affect them, leading to low or poor performance. As a result, the company will not be able to achieve the set goals.

Finding Skilled WorkersConstruction work is highly dependent on skilled labor to complete companies’ production operations. However, there has been significant skills shortage affecting time, cost, and quality of work (Mohamed, Pärn and Edwards, 2017). Poorly skilled workers require some training and directions to do the right thing, which takes time and cost. Also, the quality of work produced by an unskilled person with lower standards. Finding skilled workers is a challenge for construction companies due to: Rapid development of new technology; Insufficient Workforce; Construction Skills Gap.

Rapid Development of New TechnologyLow supply and unavailability of qualified ICT personnel have become a challenge due to high technological innovation and new ICT developments (Brixiova, Li and Yousef, 2009). Technology has been developing rapidly, also affecting the construction industry. The emergence of new machines requires experienced workers who can effectively operate them for proficient performance. Finding this skilled labor force is a challenge for construction companies, as many people do not grasp the skills needed to run the machines. According to (Brown, 2019), as manufacturing processes improve, with automation and technological advances, the skilled workforce gap continues to increase. The technically experienced workforce is aging and retiring, with no younger population taking over.

Technology will continue to advance, so new machines and processes will be developed for the construction industry. People are not responding to the latest developments by looking for skills to operate machines, resulting in a shortage of skilled workers. The skilled population at the time are also becoming outdated as the equipment used before are not the same ones used currently. This shortage negatively impacts construction companies as it leads to reduced productivity and failures to reach objectives.

Insufficient WorkforceTrained workers in the construction industry are diminishing as the growing population prefer indoor activities and relate construction work to income inequality. According to (Brown, 2019), construction work is being neglected by the millennial society as they are moving away from hand-on jobs to indoor activities and working in offices. This mentality leads to a failure to get training on construction machines and processes hence less trained individuals within the population. Also, the construction industry is growing, with more companies emerging. Therefore, the number of qualified workers in society is insufficient to support the growing industry. Due to the high demand and less supply of workers, many companies fail to access trained labor.

The young population considers manual work as low waged jobs and requiring a lot of effort to accomplish. Most individuals wish for lesser work with more pay hence get trained o other fields leaving the construction sector with a lower number of people. The fewer individuals who decide to get construction training to fail to serve the growing construction companies hence making it challenging to find skilled workers.

Construction Skills GapThe construction industry has undergone a lot of changes; therefore, new skills and roles are emerging, with no skilled workforce to cover (Ukconstructionmedia.co.uk, 2019). Human effort is the most vital factor in construction companies to ensure the accomplishment of objectives. Having a shortage of skilled labor is profoundly impacting the performance of companies. The skills gap increases the costs for projects as it takes a longer time to complete, which is also a limitation for the clients. With the development of technology, roles such as ICT(Information and Communications Technology) officers and developers are appearing, which requires qualified personnel to effectively fill these positions.

High skill is n in providing a quality service of a product. This requirement ensures the importance of hiring qualified staff in the construction companies to get excellent performance. As the industry is improving, with new designs, improved materials, and, most significant advancement in technology, new roles and skills emerge. To fill the positions, one an experience in a function to provides the best services leading to better performances. To fill these positions, people need to experience a feature to provide the best service for better performance. The lack of skilled labor in the population makes it difficult to work effectively.

Workplace DiversityThe labor force comes from different places, but as they join the company, they have to actively and effectively contribute to a common goal. The factors that make workplace diversity a challenge for construction companies are: Language and Communication; Gender Equality; Cultural Differences.

Language and CommunicationWorkplace diversity leads to communication and language challenges, which affect construction companies as a conversation is one of the most critical competencies required for high performance (Burkard, Boticki, and Madson, 2002). Communication is essential in production; hence workers need proper language setup to enhance communication. According to (Hoezen, Reymen and Dewulf, 2006), the efficiency and effectiveness of the construction process strongly depend on the quality of communication. Different backgrounds of workers create the communication barrier due to the existence of diverse languages and ethics. In order to produce effectively, diversity must be accommodated and methods designed for effective communication. Language and communication challenges may arise due to diverse cultures and setups. The difference makes it challenging for construction companies to hire its workers as consolidating them is difficult. Construction companies are project-based; hence communication is vital for its operations. Diverse languages limits project efficiency and competencies, leading to low performances.

Gender EqualityDiversity sources may be treating technological and project-based work as masculine; hence companies are limited to preferring a particular gender to the other, even if one is competent enough (Emuze, Smallwood and Han, 2014). Construction work involves a lot of heavy work, and since men are considered energetic, most of the work is deemed to be masculine. Therefore, the companies are limited to finding male workers, since female gender fail to accept construction jobs. According to (Sang and Powell, 2012), the construction sector is the most male-dominated sector since women who try working there experience cultural and structural barriers such as discrimination and long working hours, which quickly leads to stress. Consequently, these factors affect human resources for construction companies in Europe.

Substantial work appears to be for the male gender. This mentality makes the female generation shy away from working in construction companies. Furthermore, the impacts and challenges, such as harassment and limited opportunities that come with working in the sector, scare away women. Therefore, construction companies tend to employ male gender for high performance and better productivity.

Ethnic and Cultural DifferencesCultural differences reflect on human relations, ethics, and habits, which affect workers emotionally, contributing to a loss of concentration and poor performance (Mbazor and Okuoma, 2014). In national culture researches, culture difference exists in four dimensions; power distance, individualism, uncertainty avoidance, and masculinity or feminism. These differences affect human resource management and hiring due to a common goal while working in the company. A quantitative study of ten construction companies found that cultural differences affect overall company performance. Culture contributes to people’s habits and moral, which, when not well managed, affects the performance of workers. Different cultures have different beliefs that need consolidation to obtain the objectives of the company. Diversity affects the decisions of management, which directs the daily operations of the company. Also, interference of these habits and relations may affect the individuals, leading to stress, loss of determination to work, and reduced or low performance in work. Therefore, it challenges human resources in hiring its workers and finding the right people for the positions in the company.

PayrollPayment is a challenge in the construction industry, as most jobs are manual, and there are no stipulated payment amounts for each type of job (Grimshaw, 2016). Construction companies develop their different payment strategies that do not match with other firms hence irregular payment rates.

Tracking OvertimeLack of a developed technique for tracking overtime workers and dishonesty makes it challenging to get the required information for the allocation of payments (Hussin, Rahman, and Memon, 2013). Working for long hours than the stipulated time is rampant in construction companies. The long working calls for overtime payments, which use several formulas to calculate. These formulas may fail to be liked by the employees. Also, the management may not always be there to check workers’ work overtime, and those who leave early; therefore, payments may happen to nonworking individuals.

Honesty among employees may not always be trusted as people wish to get money without working for it. Dishonesty may lead some workers to provide wrong information on the time they have worked to get paid. It is also possible to pay one more or less for some work done due to improper payment calculation techniques for various roles in the construction industry. Human resource management of construction companies in Europe finds it challenging to make payments or stipulate payroll for its workers.

Late paymentsWorkers usually need their payments to be made on time; hence late payments demoralize the workforce leading to poor performance (Kazaz, Ulubeyli, and Tuncbilekli, 2012). Workers work to earn income for their needs, thus require their payments made on time. Payments made on time is also a form of motivation for the employees. Besides, late payments damage the excellent image of the company, irrespective of the causes. As workers get paid late, it reflects in the performance of the company hence damaging the image of the company.

Salaries and wages are one factor that keeps the employees working. When payments are delay, workers lose interest in the companies hence poorly perform their roles compared to punctual payments. Motivation is vital in human resource management. As workers get guaranteed prompt payments, they get the interest to work more and perform best hence increasing productivity.

Misclassifying EmployeesEmerging roles in the technological basis lack a specific classification in the companies’ human resources hence lack a particular evaluation of their payments (Grimshaw, 2016). Misclassification is a growing concern, especially in developed countries, including Europe. It is an act punishable by law but conducted to reduce the costs and taxes incurred to the government. It occurs when employee classification occurs under independent contracts rather than governmental workers. Companies should avoid misclassification to operate well since such crimes may lead to a negative impact on the company.

Emerging roles due to changing operations in construction industries have led to a lack of knowledge on how to classify the functions. Some companies also misclassify contractors to reduce the costs paid to the government. However, these acts negatively impact the companies due to changes they have to make in case legal requirements need to be followed. Evaluating payments is a challenge for most of the companies.

Research Design

The quantitative research approach emphasizes statistical analysis of the data collected. It involves numbers and actual data used during surveys to get findings and results or obtain the objectives of the research. Therefore, the data collection method of physical observation and investigation is helpful to the accuracy and reliability of the research results.

3.1 ObservationsData on some of the challenges of construction companies such as health and safety issues and workplace diversity could quickly occur through observation (Kawuliwich, 2005). Observations provide quantification and measurement based on actual acts seen. Therefore, analysis is done based on the observation approach is valid and represents real facts of construction company challenges. According to (Mohammed and Edwards, 2017), observation of workers and construction companies’ management provides information on the challenges faced in the work environment. It is more reliable than the assumed data.

Data on construction companies’ challenges, such as physical risks, can only be collected through observation of the operations of companies. Observing gives more reliable information than replies given by the workers or the company management as they may as well lie to protect their image. The observed issues also reflect though the performance of the company.

SurveysSurveys provide an actual, broad perspective and reliable statistical data from research conducted on a sample of the construction workforce population (Carrillo, 1994). Surveys depend on a sample of people in the society, giving information on a given subject. A review may occur using questionnaires and interviews on the part of the targeted population. Inquiries include short questions for the target sample to answer. Mbazor and Okuoma (2014) used an observation approach to research on the multicultural workforce. The findings gotten supported that cultural diversity affects workers, and the environment influences the health and safety of workers. Surveys give appropriate information on the state of construction companies.

The survey research approach also provides analytical and statistical findings that are convenient. Interviews and questionnaires provide first-hand information from those who encounter problems in the study of finding challenges that affect construction company employees. Also, data collection from various companies ensures information analyzed represents most of the companies in the industry and not only one specific one, make the data more general and extensive..

Data AnalysisAfter data collection, analysis has to take place to examine or study the data to extract relevant information that makes the findings. The research question acquires answers through the investigation.

Statistical AnalysisThe data acquired was in respect to the research question- to find the critical human resource challenges facing the construction companies in Europe. According to Alhajeri (2011), a questionnaire on safety and health problem challenge showed that 69% of the companies had no written policies, while only 31% had laid out strategies. This analysis indicated that health and safety issue is a challenge for most of the construction companies, and some companies are trying to prevent loses through the development of policies to protect its workers. Nevertheless, the number of companies is still less.

According to Bukard & Madson (2002), research on diversity indicates that most of the construction companies are affected by language and cultural diversities in its human resource strategies of hiring. Europe consists of various ethnic groups, including Slavic, Romance, and Germanic languages; hence the people in the population are mixed up. Therefore, while acquiring workers in the company, construction human resource management has to consider diversity issues and, after hiring, ensure that communication is enhanced and workers work to achieve the same goal. The research supports the fact that diversity affects human resource management in construction companies.

The researchers used in this review indicate that safety and health issues, diversity, and payroll are the key human resource issues that affect construction companies in Europe , research report indicates 47% of accidents and injury challenges, which is lower than other researches; also, psychological strains were reported at 60.4% due to low wages, anxiety, and repetitive work. The feeling of unsatisfaction and in most of the high-performance expectations are the significant causes of psychological risks among workers (Tiwany and Nayak 2013). The results showed that accidents are a regular occurrence in construction industries and that psychological risks affect most of the workers.

Skilled workers problem has been increasing in most of the researches conducted due to fewer people joining construction training facilities. The shortage rate is above 60%, which shows that the challenge is too high, and soon, there would be no skilled construction machine operators in the job market (Brixiova, Li and Yousef, 2009). New technology is the leading cause of untrained workers as it keeps changing and developing, but with fewer people willing to learn the new operations. Thus, there is a huge gap in construction skills.

However, these challenges may reduce by developing strategies for sustainable development (Hussin, Rahman, and Memon, 2013). Human resource is the most contributing factor to the performance of construction companies in France. Therefore, suggestions to develop payroll strategies, have health and safety standards, and find ways to handle diversity. Such acts reduce the frequency of challenges faced by construction companies. Establishing an effective management system that incorporates different cultural backgrounds is vital in the achievement of a successful project (Kivrak, Ross, Arslan and Tunkan, 2009). Understanding and accepting the challenges affecting the country helps to overcome the problems by thinking critically to solve the issues.

Conclusion

Wireless and Mobile Computing

Wireless and Mobile Computing

Student’s Name

Affiliation

Course

Date

Introduction

802.11b is a wireless LAN (WI-FI) standard that belongs to a group of wireless networking standards that are commonly referred to as the 802.x.The 802.x standard is divided into several series that cover both physical and data-link aspects of networking. Examples of networking standards under the 802.x series include 802.1, 802.2, 802.5, 802.3, 802.4, 802.6, 802.11c 802.11n. 802.11b wireless standard is used for wireless internet purpose mainly to connect to the internet or a network wirelessly. These networking standards have been used in personal computers or home networks and internet “hotspots” found in various locations such as restaurants, coffee shops, shopping malls and public parks. Various devices use the 802.11b standard to facilitate wireless networking or communication. Some of these devices include personal computers via the 802.1b card, wireless routers which use the standard to establish or set up access points and other hand held devices.

Coding in the 802.11b is done through system that is referred to as binary convolution coding. This coding system uses a 64-state Binary Convolution Code (BCC) and a cover sequence. The coding process involves encoding the output of the Binary Convolution Code (BCC) jointly into I and Q channel. The incoming data is first encoded with a Binary Convolution Code, after which application of a cover code is done to the encoded data. The encoded data is only transmitted to the channel after a cover code has been applied (Kurose & Ross, 2010). Modulation in 802.11b standard is done through a scheme known as the PBCC Modulator Scheme. In this scheme, information is first fed into an encoder that uses error control coding method. This error control coding then sends two bits for every one bit of data or information. The coded information is then fed or directed into a cover map. The cover map used in the 802.11b is known as Quadrature Phase Shift Key (QPSK).The QPSK cover map subsequently sends the appropriate bits to the I and Q channels (Gast ,2005).

In 802.11b standard, the position of the bits on the real/imaginary planes is determined by the cover sequence. Four different modulations are supported by the 802.11b standard. Basic access rates characterized by 1mbit/s use DQPSK modulation, in enhanced access rates with 2mbit/s, DQPSK CCK modulation is normally embraced. Finally high access rates use DQPSK CCK modulation (Gast, 2005).

802.11b supports a maximum data rate of 11mbps.This is a rate better than that of the traditionally used Ethernet that had a maximum data rate of 10mbps.However, comparing the 802.11b to newer networking standards reveals that it performs slower than the new standards such as the 802.11g standard and even the Fast Ethernet. The 802.11b is also prone to wireless interference. This results from the transmission of unregulated 2.4GHz frequency. This standard is mainly affected by radio interference from devices such as codeless telephones, garage door openers and microwave ovens (Gast, 2005).

The 802.11b standard divides the spectrum into channels so that multiple access points can each be set to different channels and are able to work closely without interference. Though the 802.11b data rate of 11mbps is higher than that of the traditional Ethernet and the 802.11a, this rate is distant dependent. As the distance increases, the data rates also decrease. It therefore requires access points at every 300 feet in each direction making it inferior to newer networking technologies such as the 802.11g standard whose graph data rate falls to 6mbps as the distance increases to 180 feet. The 802.11b standard is asymmetrical .The up linking and down linking operations is handled differently and independently in order to achieve high data rates.

Conclusion

The IEEE 802.11b standard is therefore capable of handling more users and this makes it able to serve in more demanding applications such as wireless multimedia video transmission as well as in broadcast MPEG.

References

Kurose, J & Ross. (2010). Computer Networking: A Top-Down Approach. Pearson Education

Gast, M. (2005). 802.11 Wireless Network. New York: O’Reilly Publishers

WMCSA ’99 Second IEEE Workshop on Mobile Computing Systems and Applications, February

25-26, 1999, New Orleans, Louisiana: proceedings. (20021999). Los Alamitos, CA:

IEEE Computer Society.

taxing_systems-1

Taxing System in United States of America

Student Name

Professor’s Name

Course

Date

Distinguish between proportional and progressive taxes

The taxing system involves the proportional and progressive taxes. Proportional taxes are also called flat taxes. Proportional taxes are taxes imposed on low, middle, as well as high income earners almost equally. On the other hand, progressive taxes have less impact on low-income earners and high financial impact on high-income people and businesses.

Proportional Taxes

Also known as flat taxes, proportional taxes assess the same tax rate to everyone that pays taxes, without considering the taxpayer’s income or wealth. Proportional taxes are meant to bring a sense of equality between average tax rate paid and marginal tax rate. This means every taxpayer pays a certain percentage of tax without considering the amount of income earned. For example, a 10% rate is fixed so that it neither increases nor decreases although the income is subject to rise or falls. This means a person with a salary of $20,000 annually shall end up paying $2,000 using a proportional tax while another one with annual salary of $200,000 ends up paying $20,000 in taxes. Classical examples of proportional taxes include gross receipts taxes, per capita taxes, and occupational taxes.

Progressive Taxes

An example of a progressive tax system is the current federal income tax. In this system, the proportion of tax liability is set in a special way so that the tax rises as the income rises. Progressive taxes are set in a way that facilitates the wealthy and high-income earners to offer more taxes than the low and middle class earners. Example of this tax system is the estate taxes that clearly show that the wealthy taxpayers pay greater tax rates than low income and middle class groups.

What is the difference between the Federal income tax on individuals and that imposed on corporations?

Federal Individual Income Tax

This tax is imposed on the income of U.S. citizens as well as resident aliens. The citizens and residents of U.S. are taxed based on worldwide income. On the other hand, nonresidents are taxed based on their income within the jurisdiction. For federal individual income tax, the taxable income is calculated by subtracting allowable deductions minus total income (Thomas and Emmanuel, 2007). Individuals can deduct personal allowance as well as certain personal expenses like state taxes, home mortgage interest, and contribution to charity among others. However, some deductions are limited. Taxpayers assess their income tax by the use of filing tax returns. The set deadline for people to file tax returns is April 15th. The taxing jurisdiction can adjust the tax as determined by taxpayers.

Federal Corporation’s Income Tax

This is tax levied on corporations or analogous legal entities. Most nations impose the federal corporation’s tax at the national level although it is possible to impose it at state as well as local levels. Most countries tax local corporations operating in the country based on income from that country. The company taxable income is calculated just like the calculations of taxable income for individuals. However, some jurisdictions demand that calculations for company’s tax be different from the calculations used to calculate individual tax. Corporate tax is imposed on net profits of the companies. There are exceptions that cannot be taxed such as corporate acts like reorganizations.

List an advantage and a disadvantage of using the U.S. Tax Court as the trial court for Federal tax litigation.

The U.S. Tax Court mainly deals with settling disputes over federal income tax. The U.S. tax Court is not answerable to any branch of government like the executive because it is an independent body (Section 441, 2016). In a district court, the trial is by jury. The U.S. tax court operates differently such that one must not pay the tax before litigating the controversy although this means that interest is due on an unpaid deficiency. The U.S. Tax Court is a very popular forum as most people believe the judges here are experts when it comes to tax matters. The Tax Court has an advantage in that a client need not pay the tax before litigating the controversy. The disadvantage is that there is a chance for delay before the case is decided. In addition, the case is never heard before a jury.

 Where can you locate a published decision of the U.S. Court of Federal Claims?

The federal reporter reports cases laws in U.S. and is published by West Publishing. The federal reporter is part of the National Reporter System and is also the medium where decisions of U.S. Court of Federal Claims are published (Martin, 1999). In addition, the federal reporter also publishes the decisions of U.S. Court of Appeals.

Heather, age 12, lives in the same household with her mother, grandmother, and uncle.  

Who can qualify for the dependency exemption? Who takes preference?

When a child qualifies for exceptions for many persons, only a single individual can have the kid as the qualifying child to take the subsequent benefits such as the child tax credit, exception for the child, and earned income credit. The benefits cannot be shared between people unless there are two different qualifying children. There are tiebreaker rules that determine who has the child as a qualifying child. First, the child’s parent is the first priority and the child acts as the qualifying child to him or her before other parties are considered. Special circumstances that can change the status of the parent as the first priority includes when a parent lives with two people who both apply for the same benefits citing the same child as the qualifying child. In this case, some factors are considered like who has the higher income.

What is the purpose of the constructive receipt doctrine?

The constructive receipt plays a major role when assessing taxpayers. In fact, the constructive receipt mandates a taxpayer with liability for income, even if the income has not been received physically (Samuel, 2007). The receipt ensures taxpayers do not defer tax on income not yet spent. Therefore, the principle of taxing income before the taxpayer receives it is termed as the Doctrine of Constructive Receipt.

Under what circumstances may a taxpayer deduct a rental loss associated with a vacation home?

Taxpayers can claim deductions basing the argument on a primary residence as well as a vacation or a second home. More deductions are available when a person owns a second home although the process requires more effort. For instance, when a person devotes some personal use time, the vacation residence produces major tax savings. The second home’s property tax payments and mortgage interests are tax deductible (J.K. Lasser, 2015).

Edna incurs various legal fees in obtaining a divorce.  What type of expenses associated with the divorce are deductible by Edna and which are not?

One cannot deduct legal fees involved in divorces, alimony, or related expenses (Julian, 2014). The operating rules states that deductions for the cost incurred through obtaining personal advice or counseling are prohibited. Although these expenses are incurred in the process of arriving at a financial settlement, they are nondeductible, a restriction that only the U.S. Supreme Court upholds. This is because the claims by spouses attempting divorce come from the individual’s personal marital relationships as opposed to coming from anyone’s income generating actions.

Hubert, a self-employed taxpayer, is married and has two children. He has asked you to explain the tax and nontax advantages of creating a Health Savings Account (HSA) for him and his family.

The Medicare Modernization Act was signed to law in 2003 by President George W Bush. The Act provided for the formation of tax-free savings vehicle that helps people fund their healthcare expenses. What the administration was shooting for was providing better access to healthcare. The savings were intended to replace MSA’s in providing health coverage via the use of tax-free savings. However, for eligibility, a person had to be covered under HDHP.

What impact does a home equity loan have on taxable income?

Home equity loans provide homeowners with the chance to borrow money by using equity in their homes as leverage. Home- equity loans come with certain interests to be paid. This interest is deductible, which is an advantage to the consumer. Therefore, consumers can get a single payment, tax benefits as well as lower interest rates.

References

J.K. Lasser, (2015). Tax News: Vacation Homes from a Tax Perspective. Retrieved April 31, 2016 from http://www.jklasser.com/news/vacation-homes-from-a-tax-perspective/

Julian, B. (2014). What’s Deductible for Legal Fees When Couples Divorce. HuffpostDivorce. Retrieved April 30, 2016 from http://www.huffingtonpost.com/julian-block/whats-deductible-for-lega_b_4714616.html

Martin, B. (1999). In Defense of Unpublished Opinions 60, Ohio St. L.J., p. 177

Samuel, A, D. (2007). Federal Income Taxation of Individuals: Cases, problems and Material, 353. 2nd ed.

Section 441 of the Protecting Americans from Tax Hikes Act of 2015, Division Q of the Consolidated Appropriations Act. (2016). Signed into Law by President Barrack Obama on December 18, 2015.

Thomas, P., & Emmanuel, S. (2007). How Progressive is the U.S. Federal Tax System? A Historical and International Perceptive. Journal of Economic Perspective 21 (1): 23-24