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Definition, Causes Of Diseases And Nursing Theory

Definition, Causes Of Diseases And Nursing Theory

Contents

TOC o “1-3” h z u HYPERLINK l “_Toc379181429” Irritable Bowel syndrome (IBS) PAGEREF _Toc379181429 h 1

HYPERLINK l “_Toc379181430” Fatigue PAGEREF _Toc379181430 h 1

HYPERLINK l “_Toc379181431” Depression PAGEREF _Toc379181431 h 3

HYPERLINK l “_Toc379181432” Hidden UT PAGEREF _Toc379181432 h 4

HYPERLINK l “_Toc379181433” Diabetes PAGEREF _Toc379181433 h 4

HYPERLINK l “_Toc379181434” Food allergies PAGEREF _Toc379181434 h 4

HYPERLINK l “_Toc379181435” Increased Blood in the Stool PAGEREF _Toc379181435 h 5

HYPERLINK l “_Toc379181436” Ulcerative Coritis PAGEREF _Toc379181436 h 5

HYPERLINK l “_Toc379181437” Angioddyplasia PAGEREF _Toc379181437 h 6

HYPERLINK l “_Toc379181438” Arthritic Pain PAGEREF _Toc379181438 h 6

HYPERLINK l “_Toc379181439” Weight Loss and Rash to Anal Area PAGEREF _Toc379181439 h 6

HYPERLINK l “_Toc379181440” Final Diagnoses/problems with ICD 9 Code PAGEREF _Toc379181440 h 7

HYPERLINK l “_Toc379181441” Nursing Diagnoses PAGEREF _Toc379181441 h 8

HYPERLINK l “_Toc379181442” Management Plan PAGEREF _Toc379181442 h 8

HYPERLINK l “_Toc379181443” Medical management PAGEREF _Toc379181443 h 8

HYPERLINK l “_Toc379181444” Teaching and counseling PAGEREF _Toc379181444 h 9

HYPERLINK l “_Toc379181445” Health promotion and maintenances PAGEREF _Toc379181445 h 9

HYPERLINK l “_Toc379181446” Cultural, Ethical and Socioeconomic Issues PAGEREF _Toc379181446 h 9

HYPERLINK l “_Toc379181447” Nursing Theory PAGEREF _Toc379181447 h 10

Some of the additional information required is:

Causes of abdominal pains

History of other ailments, like HIV/AIDS

The weather and climatic change

What causes extreme fatigue

Any liver diagnosis

Any problems with the appendix

If there any bile duct complications

Presence of irritable bowel syndrome

Any physical examinations performed

Mothers full medical history in details concerning the bad stomach

Irritable Bowel syndrome (IBS)This syndrome is associated with abdominal pains either due to abnormal contractions of intestinal muscles or visceral hyper sensitivity caused by sensitive nerves within the intestine. No causes of functional pain have been found. Diagnostic test needed are for ulcers, celiac disease, and collagenous colitis, examination of biopsies of the small intestine and colon.

FatigueMany women with anemia experience cases of acute fatigue, especially caused by menstrual blood loss. Anemia is mainly caused by iron deficiency though Maria eats regular diet. Being overweight can also be a source of fatigue, and may cause sleep disorders. The remedy would be to lose weight, quit certain lifestyles like smoking, drinking, and sleeping with CPAP device that keeps the air passages open. Taking the right diet is another remedy to help level blood sugar in optimal ranges. The diet should include foods such as eggs, and taking snacks throughout the day (Leon &, Marc, 2005),

Anemia causes iron deficiency during menstrual blood loss in women, since more red blood cells are needed to carry enough oxygen to the tissues and organs. Hypothyroidism is a thyroid, which is a small gland in the lower neck that controls metabolism. One will feel sluggish and may add weight if the gland is under active, and the metabolism functions is too slow. This occurs when the speed of converting fuels into energy is too slow.

Certain foods such as too much caffeine may add more fatigue in consumed in large quantities, even though it improves alertness and concentration if taken in moderate quantities. Chronic fatigue that lasts up to six months may present symptoms like multi joint pains, headache, and muscle pain, and can be defined as chronic fatigue syndrome. The diagnosis may need a lot of time in clearly identifying the problem if the symptom is really fatigue, and other causes of fatigue should be investigated. Cushing’s disease, other infections like malaria, HIV infection, and influenza are numerous sources of fatigue. Heart diseases such as congestive heart failure, coronary heart disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, asthma, pneumonia, and arrhythmias are also associated with fatigue. Their existence also needs to be explored.

History of drug abuse, alcohol abuse, grief, bereavement, and bulimia are psychiatric conditions that may present fatigue. Even the medication history should not be left behind when investigating the causes of fatigue. Especially anti depressants, sedatives, medication and strong drug withdrawal, steroids, and blood pressure medications. Associated symptoms include vomiting, nausea, diarrhea, blood in urine and stool, constipation, fever, muscle cramps and aches.

DepressionDepression can also be a cause of severe fatigue, as well as other physical symptoms. Other causes of depression should be examined such as headaches, loss of appetite, and other causes of emotional disorder. Depression is a very complex condition to diagnose since it is attributed to many causes. The factors that might increase depression are abuse, either physical, sexual, or emotional abuse that might make depression manifest itself in later stages of life.

Certain medications are known to enhance depression, especially drugs for treating high blood pressure, beta blockers, and reserpine. Personal conflicts are a sure source of depression, or disputes among family members. Grief or loss of a loved one, like Maria’s son was involved in an accident raises the level of sadness, thus increasing the levels of depression. Depression is also a hereditary disease that occurs in the family history. It may be passed genetically from parent to the offspring. Hippocampus is associated with cortisal, which is toxic, and those people with smaller amounts of hippocampus are likely to suffer from depression.

Brain chemistry can show the effects of anti depressants, and a deep understanding of biochemical processes related to depressions may make diagnosis easier. Women experience depression more than men due to hormonal and physical changes, coupled with long periods of sadness in new mothers. New added responsibilities in life also enhance the chances of suffering from depression. These responsibilities may be at work or home, single motherhood, caring for children and aging parents.

Hidden UTThis is common in women who have had urinary tract infection that is associated with fatigue. The symptoms are burning pain and a urging sense of emergency. Urine test known as UTI may be taken to confirm the existence of this condition. The disease does not always come with definite symptoms.

DiabetesPresence of diabetes should be investigated, as it is also associated with extreme fatigue for unexplained reasons. Abnormal high levels of sugar remaining in the blood stream instead of entering into the body cells. Even in cases of having enough to eat leads to unexplained fatigue. Testing of diabetes would be necessary.

Food allergiesThere are certain hidden food allergies that intensifies fatigue after meals. .Any type of food allergy should be confirmed. Some symptoms of food allergy are coughing, fainting or collapsing, wheezing and short breathing, nausea and bloated feeling, itchy skin and rash, diarrhea, and vomiting. All these diagnoses need not to occur at the same time to suggest food allergy. The IgE blood test can be performed to measure the anti bodies present in blood. Another test could be allergy skin prick to offer supportive evidence.

Anaphylaxis is a severe form of allergy with symptoms present in different parts of the body at the same time. These may include rashes, swelling of lips and throat, loss of consciousness, and difficulty in breathing. In serious cases, death may occur from this form of allergy.

Diagnosis for allergy can sometimes be very confusing as other conditions may mimic these symptoms. For example histamine poisoning is a kind of false allergy caused by prompt decay of certain foods. This condition is sometimes referred to as scombridae poisoning. Sometimes RAST blood test and skin prick test may not show evidence of food allergy; this condition may be confused by food additive intolerance. Aspirin is related to a number of chemical compounds found in a range of foods, a condition known as salicycates. Since Maria was on aspirin medication, she might be aspirin sensitive, since she suffers from chronic allergic conditions.

Increased Blood in the StoolThis symptom maybe caused by a number of different ailments. Inflammatory Bowel Disease that makes intestinal walls to swell, inflamed, and develops ulcers, Crohn’s disease that occurs anywhere in the digestive tract. The small intestines, colon may develop shallow, crater like areas with deep sore with cobblestone pattern.

Diagnosis of blood in stool can be an indication of hemorrhoids. In most cases, hemorrhoids are not visible, but hidden. It occurs when pressure is increased that causes sensitive veins to swell showing lumps around the anal canal and anus. Blood in the stool is not always caused by hemorrhoids; it may b a medical condition occurring in the upper gastrointestinal tract. Other causes are acute gastritis, colon cancer, irritable bowel syndrome, ulcerative colitis, Meckel’s diverticulum, colon polyps, constipation, and typhoid fever.

Ulcerative CoritisUlcerative Coritis is another type of Chrohn’s disease that affects the colon and rectum. It occurs with inflammation and ulcers in the innermost of these regions. This disease is associated with abdominal pain, diarrhea many times a day, bloody stool, and weight loss. Those with a family history are likely to develop it than those without. Patients with this disease experience joint pains, skin sores, fatigue, anemia, and frequent fevers. A colonoscopy test should be performed to ascertain the existence of this disease.

AngioddyplasiaThis is a condition where abnormal blood vessels that are fragile lead to bleeding. It may be caused by peptic ulcers associated with open sores within the stomach linings or duodenum. It is a bacterial infection called Helicobacter Pylon. There is a need to evaluate the bleeding in stool using fecal occult test that may detect hidden blood (MedicineNet.com, n.d.).

Arthritic PainRheumatoid arthritis is autoimmune illness that comes with chronic inflammation of the joints. This occurs when somebody’s body is attacked by its own immune system. This inflammation can also affect the tissues around the joints. The disease is more common in women, and may recur in families with the genetic disorder. It is caused by viral or fungi infections. Other symptoms include extreme fatigue, loss of appetite, fever, joint aches, and stiffness. Morning and evening periods of inactivity associated with rash, anemia, weight loss, and anorexia. Diagnosis involves examination of joints, and various parts of the body for inflammation. This is done together with a blood test known as sediment rate and X-ray tests, and may take several visits before a certain diagnosis is certain. Blood test to measure the degree of flammation may be necessary to detect presence of C-reactive protein. X-ray is to detect swollen tissues, bony erosions, and monitoring the progression of the disease. Eroded joints can also be detected by MRI scanning, radioactive test procedure, and bone scanning.

Weight Loss and Rash to Anal AreaWeight loss is mainly associated with eating habits; Irregular meals should be avoided to prevent drops in blood sugar level. Sexually transmitted diseases can also exhibit rashes to the anal area. Boils is an infection that fights white blood cells that the body sends through through the blood stream. The signs of boils may exhibit painful experiences and swelling in the buttocks. They are mainly bacterial in nature, follicutis inflammation can be found in hair follicles, acne, skin wounds and injuries (Golden, 2004).

Final Diagnoses/problems with ICD 9 CodeFinal diagnosis is rheumatoid arthritis and Inflammatory Bowel Disease, especially Ulcerative Coritis.

ICD 9 codes are a requirement when reporting diagnose for health insurance claims. They reduce claim delays, denials, and improve reimbursement. It is most universally accepted classifying system, external causes of injury, for coding diagnoses, health status, and health care encounters. It has the following challenges:

The tabular list is running out of numbers because of limited space for assigning codes in some case.

It does not provide codes for sufficient clinical specificity in describing severity, or complexity of many ailment conditions., thus need for additional documentations when filing claims

Limited exchange of healthcare data among healthcare organizations and professionals, since some countries are using ICD 10

It is limited in monitoring utilization of recourses

Shortcomings in measuring performance, analyzing healthcare costs, and outcomes

It was developed specifically for inpatient settings

Limited scope in including the ambulatory care services

Inclusion of emergent diseases

Group diagnoses for epidemiological purposes

Nursing DiagnosesA nursing diagnosis is a component of the nursing process or a clinical judgment of individuals, family, or community experience. These standardized nursing diagnoses are obtained through nursing assessment. NANDA international is responsible for defining, disseminating, and integrating standardized nursing diagnose. The categories include;

Actual diagnosis

Risk diagnosis

Health promotion diagnosis

Syndrome diagnosis

Management PlanNursing management plan is concerned with performance leadership in governance and decision making within organizations that have nurses. This involves planning, organizing, staffing, directing, and controlling nurse. Some of key areas are:

Medical managementMedical management is concerned with selection, training, motivation, and retaining of nursing staff in health care facilities. Work force planning involves the strategies for acquiring, utilizing, improving, and preserving human capital. This effort should be commensurate with individual and aggregate patient needs.

Staffing norms determines the quality, quantity, and utilization of nurses that match with the aims of healthcare organizations. Medical management of nurses looks at problems and opportunities within the healthcare system, and providing technical expertise.

Teaching and counselingTeaching and counseling is designed to help patients cope with illness and disease. Therefore, this aspect emanates from the needs of patients, their relatives, and nurses to meet most relevance in healthcare management. These are nursing activities aimed at providing interventions by giving information, anticipating patient problems, encouraging patient action and responsibility, assisting patients with decision making, and problem solving.

Teaching healthcare effectively to patients should provide hospitable learning environments, helping patients decide on who are to be involved in their learning process, and establishing a base line of knowledge.

Health promotion and maintenancesHealth education and communications are aimed at enhancing the well being and prevention of ill health. This is done by influencing knowledge, beliefs, attitudes, and behavior of the community.

Cultural, Ethical and Socioeconomic IssuesMaria Santiago a twenty eight year old woman Latino from Mexico. She is probably from lower average economic and social standing group. The issues that might affect her care may include gender, ethnic, racial, discrimination, lack of knowledge of specific disease regiment, cultural beliefs, socioeconomic status, and individual factors like psychological functioning, difficulty navigating health care systems, lack of social support, neighborhood stresses, and age (Dan, et al, (2011).

There is diversity in Hispanics in having access to services, utilization of services, getting appropriate outcomes of services, availability of services, and having the need for services. Her treatment will be greatly affected by her level of education, country of origin, and generation. The ethical issues could emanate from relatively few clinical applications of pharmacogenetics, where discovery of genetic factors influence response to medicines may not match with changes in clinical practice. Other ethical issues that might influence her treatment respect of persons in terms of autonomy to make decisions, and protection of vulnerable people. Treatment will solely be based on the result of the diagnostic tests rather than clinical assessment.

Nursing TheoryThe nursing theory to guide Maria’s treatment to assess her condition by all methods explained in the nursing theory. Identifying the specific needs of the patient, demonstrating effective communication and interaction with her. Selection of a theory to solve her problem, and evaluating how the nursing process was successful.

Conclusion

Nursing practice theories are limited in scope, and level of abstraction in providing frameworks for nursing intervention, predicting outcomes of the nursing practice. The theories should help to generate more knowledge in the delivery of nursing care.

In Maria’s case, nursing theories should direct specific conceptual frameworks that define Maria’s and her environment, health, and nursing in general.

References

Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA) Pictures Slideshow on MedicineNet.com. (n.d.). Retrieved from HYPERLINK “http://www.medicinenet.com/rheumatoid_arthritis_pictures_slideshow/article.htm” http://www.medicinenet.com/rheumatoid_arthritis_pictures_slideshow/article.htm

Dan L, et al, (2011), Harrison’s Principles of Internal Medicine: Mc Grawhill. Volumes 1 and 2, 18th Edition

Golden, R. (2004). A history of William Osler’s The principles and practice of medicine. Osler Library studies in the history of medicine No. 8. Montreal, McGill University,

Leon S &, Marc A. (2005), Clinical gynecologic endocrinology and infertility Clinical gynecologic endocrinology and infertility. NY Sage

Definition of the two terms may be some-what problematic

Introduction

Definition of the two terms may be some-what problematic. It’s because there are some rules in the society which exist on the natural level. Whereas any of the given society has to have few sense of the societal ethic that even in absence of the formal law, could prohibit some behaviour. Consequence of this is that mostly, things the society considers for being mala in se are universal mala prohibita. On the other side, there are lot of acts which are mala prohibita that many, if not the all, citizens could consider for being acceptable that is mala prohibita only (Substantive Criminal Law: Principles and working Vocabulary). What may confuse this issue is a fact which violating any of the law is mala in se. The act promotes anarchy & undermines ability of a state for enforcing any of the laws. For objective of this discussion, though, two terms are used for classifying victimless crimes like mala prohibita versus the crimes which present the clear & quick danger to individual or to survival of the society.

    The natural crimes need that the judgment be made on basic of the morality & people don’t agree always with the moral & immoral. For instance courts have the young man charge with the statutory rape but girl consents for having intercourse & she isn’t of the age, and she has intercourse with young man on her free will, not being coerced; threaten in any of the kind of the way & knowing she was under-age. Law will yet charge young man with the statutory rape because young girl was under-age. And if she was of the age here’s no longer will this be the criminal act. It shows why these concepts not easy for applying effectively and evenly. Main crime Index is the murder and rape, homicide, aggravated assault, robbery, larceny, burglary & auto theft.

Comparing and Contrasting Natural and Legal Crime

The two kinds of the crime natural & legal are easily compared. In the legal terms natural crime is called as mala in se which wrong in & of itself, on the other hand legal crimes may be whether mala in se or mala prohibita which is wrong because this isn’t allowed by the law. The natural & legal crime may overlap in some cases. In reality, many natural crimes are mala prohibita, and which are mala prohibita that aren’t required mala in se. The natural crime is the act in which ethics of the society finds the specific action for being offensive. This type of the crime is associated with the malum in se, the term which signifies the crime which is considered wrong in & of it (Criminal Law). The legal crime is the act which violates the criminal law, the man-made law & forced by state. The legal crime is associated with the malum prohibitum, the term applied to any of the action has criminalized strictly by the statue & statutory law.

The list of major crime used by FBI in its crime index

In 2000 many of the public image of crime problem is stirred by media through celebrated cases as well as the vehicles like as the ten most wanted fugitives list of the Federal Bureau of Investigation. In the year 1950 the news reporter asked FBI for ten worst tough guys which they were hunting. Resulting publicity was too good that list became the official FBI program. This satisfied the hunger of public for details about the notorious criminal & served as the means of exposing the fugitives & encouraging the citizen participation. FBI claims that 134 ten most wanted fugitives have been apprehended as the result of the citizen recognition. May be most memorable case was arrest of the bank robber Willie Sutton when the clothing salesman recognized him on New York City subway. After the story of citizen was run in New York Times, the mobster Albert Anastasia had a salesman killed. List has reflected well the social climate of different American times. 1950s list consisted of bank burglars, robbers & car thieves during the year 1960s version featured revolutionary & radical. The year 1970s list featured organized the criminals & terrorists and this emphasis continues, the serial murderer & drug related offender abound in the later list.

The current ten most wanted fugitives list

Osama bin Laden: The international terrorist

Diego Montoya Sanchez: money laundering, cocaine trafficking & the Racketeer Influenced & Corrupt Organizations charges

James Bulger: the Boston organized crime figure who is wanted for the extortion & RICO charges

Victor Manuel Gerena: The bank robber who robbed the security company, netting dollar 7 million

Glen Stewart Godwin: the murderer & escaped prisoner

Robert William Fisher: Allegedly killed his wife & 2 young kids & then blew up house in which they lived

Richard S. Goldberg: Sexual exploitation of kids

Donald Eugene Webb: Murder of the Pennsylvania police chief

Jorge Albert Lopez Orozco: Murdered 3 people & is wanted for the un-lawful flight

Michael Astorga: Wanted for 2 murders including of the deputy of sheriff

The list doesn’t feature any women they have been on list in past, beginning with the Ruth

Eisemann-Schier to kidnap & extortion in the year 1968 Inclusion of the antiwar activists like as Angela Davis & Bernardine Dohrn was greeted with the public scorn engendered after growing the dis-enchantment with Vietnam War.

The crimes considered Mala in se or Mala prohibita

Mala in se – Any hurtful act against the other breathing creature or the property, including burglary, fraud, robbery, murder, animal abuse, assault, rape, battery, kidnaps.Rationale: Golden Rule- Do unto others as we would have them do unto us.

Mala prohibita – Only about all the city ordinances, particularly parking violation, picking up after our dog violation, weed the lawn kind violations, the junk cars in front yard violation and so many.Rationale: They are not hurting anybody & they are mainly only the other form of the taxation.

Conclusion

From the two kinds of crimes, out of which is natural crimes is called for being the part of mala in se offenses that is act that the person must understand what is wrong & must not take these actions. Mala in se offenses are always felonies and the much violent crimes. According to FBI in Uniform Crime Report murder or the assault, homicide, rape, aggravated assault & robbery are all the violent crimes. The legal crimes are associated with the mala prohibita has considered for being wrong just because there is the law prohibiting this. Mala prohibita offenses consist of the misdemeanours and felonies that include curfew violations, counterfeiting, juveniles, driving under the influence, disorderly conduct, drug abuse drunkenness, violations, embezzlement, fraud, forgery, larceny, auto theft, robbery and burglary (Criminal Law Principles: Legality Principles).     

References

Criminal Law. (n.d.). Retrieved June 13th, 2011, from http://www.mojolaw.com: http://www.mojolaw.com/

Criminal Law Principles: Legality Principles. (n.d.). Retrieved June 13th, 2011, from http://law.jrank.org: http://law.jrank.org/pages/18461/Criminal-Law-Principles-Legality-Principles.html

Substantive Criminal Law: Principles and working Vocabulary. (n.d.). Retrieved June 13th, 2011, from http://samples.jbpub.com: http://samples.jbpub.com/9780763755256/55256_CH01_001_016.pdf

Definitions and Typologies of the Family Business

Definitions and Typologies of the Family Business

Name

Course

Instructor’s name

Date

The Concept of Socioemotional Wealth

The concept of socioemotional wealth attempts to explain the role played by family emotions in managing and controlling their businesses. It asserts that emotional construct plays a key role in family business (Davis, 2001). Family businesses have strong emotional insinuation because they are a social group with long history and enduring memories. Socioemotional emotional concept implies that families have a number of emotions including warmth, intimacy, hatred, and anger that play an important role in their business relationship since the family member’s identity are closely linked to the business. People’s perception of the family business greatly affects the image and reputation of the family members since the personal pride and self-concept of family members are closely linked with the business. It is also worth noting that there is an emotional satisfaction experienced amongst family members due to their ability to execute authority and control over their business and these emotions tend to flow back and forth.

Gomez-Mejia et al. (2011) explain that there are several other emotional constructs including emotional capital, emotional ownership, emotional value, commitment entrapment and possession attachment that have been studied and linked with family business recently. Most of the managerial decisions in the family businesses are driven by the desire to preserve and enhance the family’s socioemotional wealth. Pursuit of socioemotional wealth acts as the family business’ uniqueness and explains many of the managerial decisions made by the family members. Issues such as choosing a potential successor and other non-economic factors are considered more significant compared to the economic factors (Davis, 2001).

Family successor, for instance, are closely identified with the family business and reinforces family power and influence in the firm. Professionalism is also never an issue because recruitment and promotional practices in the family firms are always rely on social network and seniority instead of using clear criteria to screen applicants and applicant’s qualifications respectively. This kind of criteria in human resource is consistent with socio-emotional wealth because they are intended to focus on the small pool of individuals sharing family values and culture. It is worth noting that all the family principles are always integrated into the family firms and form part of the strategic decisions they make.

2.

Socioemotional wealth is evident in several other managerial and strategic decisions such as business venturing, R &D, and technological diversification, risk taking, professionalization, and succession.

Succession

Family business highly regards the significance of transferring business control from one generation to the next, which acts as amongst the most critical made in the family firms. According to Gomez-Mejia et al. (2011), family businesses normally prefer a successor from within the family as a way of retaining family control and satisfy family ambition that may eventually preserve the socioemotional wealth. Family firms usually ensure existence of personal relationship between the business leaders and their successors to promote better transfer of idiosyncratic knowledge across generations and foster the identification of the successor with the firm as well as enhancing their emotional attachment to the business (Davis, 2001).

Professionalization

Gomez-Mejia et al. (2011) assert that most family businesses are known for not considering incorporation of experts and managers from outside the firm as well as institution of formal management frameworks due to consideration of socioemotional wealth explanation. This is because employing external managers enhances information asymmetries that may limit family control over strategic decisions, lead to behavioral uncertainty and increases disputes about goals. Family business relies more heavily on social networks during the recruitment process and place more emphasis on informal training. According to Gomez-Mejia et al. (2011), mentoring relationships and informal training are put more emphasis on instead of focusing on formal training. All these practices are consistent with socioemotional wealth since they tend to indoctrinate new employees with norms and values of the business that enhances identification with the firm.

Risk Taking

Family members normally concentrate all their wealth in a particular business making their risks and returns tied to a single asset thus increasing the vulnerability. This normally turn them to be more risk averse since the cost of negative result outweighs paybacks that may be accumulated through the pursuit of a high risk venture. According to Gomez-Mejia et al. (2011), this kind of characteristic enables the family principals to accept greater risks to the firm’s financial health if taking risks may deter losses as potential losses may increase subjective risk bearing. Financial goals are never considered as important as the socioemotional wealth that triggers the family business principals to maintain a good reputation and project a positive family image while avoiding the possible loss of reputation.

R&D Investment and Technological Diversification

Gomez-Mejia et al. (2011) posit that R& D investment and technological diversification represents risk due to greater complexity, uncertainty, and rapid technological changes experienced in various industries. For socioemotional wealth purposes preservation purposes, family principles are less likely to support technological diversification despite the fact that it reduces business risk since they may lessen the socioemotional wealth. It is therefore apparent that family businesses normally invest less in R & D as a way of reducing firm risk.

Business Venturing

According to Gomez-Mejia et al. (2011), family members usually invest the family resources in business, which is normally characterized with substantial family involvement. At the initial stages of a family business, family member play an integral role in mobilizing capital, which is usually difficult due to low legitimacy and high uncertainty of attracting external resources. However, socioemotional wealth always limits new ventures in family businesses to the other related activities until the business matures and build portfolios of related businesses as members of extended family fill key positions.

References

Davis, John A. (2001). “Definitions and Typologies of the Family Business”. Harvard Business School Background.

Gomez-Mejia et al. (2011, July 26). The Bind that Ties: Socioemotional Wealth Preservation in Family Firms. The Academy of Management Annals, 5 (1), 653-707.

Deforestation Concepts and Descriptions

Deforestation

Name

Institutional Affiliation

Assignment 1: Literature Review

Deforestation

Concepts and Descriptions

Conceptually, deforestation is the is the removal of tree stands, which converts the land into other land uses or results into a bareness; for example, clearing of forestland to ranches, farms, or urban use (Durham & Painter, 1998). Similarly, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) considers deforestation as a massive clearing of the Earth’s forest, which often results to degradation and reduction of the quality of land. UNDP has reiterated that the current rate of global deforestation is alarming and calls for immediate and rigorous intervention. It warns that if no proper measure is put in place, the word risks losing its forest endowments in just a hundred years to come. Also, a report by Cardenas (2008), adds that the world is not just losing the forest cover, but a complex mixture of natural resources including the biodiversity, land productivity are subsequently deteriorating.

Global deforestation mainly affects the world’s temperate and tropical rainforest, which form the highest percentage of forest cover. The rate and extent of forest loss have proved beyond any reasonable doubt to be an urgent environmental problem. In this regard, the issue jeopardizes people’s livelihoods, intensifies global warming, and threatens the world’s plant and animal species (Lambin & Geist, 2006). Further, Andersen reports that, millions of the world population has a direct reliance on forest resources through small-scale agriculture, harvesting forest products, hunting, and gathering. Moreover, deforestation poses severe social problems, which sometimes results to violent conflicts as the different parties fight to tap the scarce resources.

Forest transformation and conversion are majorly due to human actions in relation to direct or indirect utilization, which over the years have continued to be profound (Boahene, 1998). Tress are cleared, fragmented, or converted to agricultural lands, infrastructure, and human settlements. Originally, as Lambin and Geist (2006) put it, more than half the land of United States, nearly all of Europe, three-quarters of Canada, and vast lands of the world were under forest. However, the coverage has been removed to a large extent by wood fuel extractions, industrial usage, and farming.

Quantitative and Qualitative Data on Forest and Deforestation

The Earth’s total area covered by the forest is over four billion hectares, which quantitatively gives an average per capita of 0.6 hectares (Vajpeyi, 2001). Though, only five countries in the world are rich in forest cover, which include Canada, Brazil, the Russian Federation, China, and United States of America. Their areas under the forest are more than half of the territories; however, the vastness in forest is because the countries have developed appropriate policies and laws to monitor forest product utilization (Lambin & Geist, 2006). Moreover, almost ten countries in the world lack areas covered by forest while additional 54 countries have less than 10% land covered (Margulis, 2004).

More than one and a half of the world forests are gone. Unfortunately, every year, additional 16 million hectares are lost, which worsen the natural state of the environment. UNDP estimates that just about 22% of the Earth’s old growth remains, especially the boreal forest of Canada and Alaska, boreal forest in Russia, the Guyana Shield, and the Amazon rainforest in the Northwest Basin. However, the anthropological influence in forest cover continues to expand and accelerate in the remaining undisturbed forest, which also result to declining quality of the forest remnants (Margulis, 2004).

Deforestation rate has shown signs of decreasing, nonetheless, still alarmingly high especially in Asia, Africa, and Latin America, which still rely on wood fuel as an energy source. Again, evidences show that, the tropical rainforest of South America and Africa are leading in the rates of deforestation (Lambin & Geist, 2006). According to Pearce (1994), agriculture was the main reason for deforestation in Brazil and Indonesia. Conversely, other uses or natural causes account for the loss, for example, in the 1990s, up to 13 million hectares of forest disappeared in the world due to non-agricultural factors. Also, since 2000, Australia has lost huge tracts of forest as a result of drought and forest fires (Costa & Pires, 2010).

Tropical deforestation is the most detrimental aspect of global change in environmental issues such as climate, hydrology, and global biogeochemical cycles (Boahene, 1998). Rainforest in the Amazon Basin is the largest single Tropical forest of the world, but sadly, the vast coverage in Brazil has the highest rate of forest loss of about 1.5-2.0 × 106 hectares per year (Costa & Pires, 2010).

Explicitly, according to Costa and Pires (2010), South America suffered the greatest net loss between the years of 2000 and 2010, by deforestation rate of 4.0 million hectares of cover lost every year. Africa followed closely with a rate of about 3.4 million hectares lost annually. In the same decade, Oceania had a net loss of 700000 ha every year, mainly because of the severe drought that struck Australia. On the other hand, in Central and North America, area covered by the forest in 2010 was estimated to be the same as in 2000. Fortunately, the forest cover in Europe expanded, though on a slower rate (700000 ha annually) in relation to 1990s (900000 ha annually). However, China experienced a net gain of greater than 2.2 million ha annually in the same period of 2000-2010. However, Southeast Asia and the Southern parts continued to register net losses in forest cover (Costa & Pires, 2010).

Causes of Deforestations

According to Kummer and Turner (1994), agriculture is the direct cause of deforestation, of which subsistence farming accounts for about 45% while commercial agriculture accounts for 32% of the global deforestation. Again, industrial logging for wood processing and as fuel energy is responsible for massive rate of deforestation (Sunderlin & Center for International Forestry Research, 1996). Globalization that leads to worldwide proliferations of ideas, commodities, capital, and labor coupled with the rise in urbanizations, especially in the developing countries has endangered the world forest cover. In Africa and Asia to be specific, the exacerbated rates of deforestation are due to overreliance on wood fuel as a source of household energy. Additionally, other natural causes such as drought, forest fires, pest, and diseases have also contributed to the loss of huge tracts of the Earth’s forest.

Effects of Deforestations

Deforestation destroys wildlife habitats, which leads to decline or extinction of the world’s biodiversity, for instance, about 137 species of animals, plants, and insects are lost in a single day because of rainforest deforestation; cumulatively, adding up to 50000 species per year. Additionally, soil loss through erosions and subsequent land degradations affects world food production (Vajpeyi, 2001).

Deforestation also causes an imbalance in the hydrological cycle due to increased moisture loss from bare soil surfaces. Sadly, deforestation is the main cause of climate change and global warming due to loss of carbon sequesters. Therefore, greenhouse gases, particularly Carbon dioxide accumulate in the atmosphere at high concentrations, making global warming inevitable. It is human beings who suffer the real repercussion as their livelihoods and welfare is tampered with. Furthermore, forest cover is a surrogate to economic value of a country, which when lost leads to economic losses (Costa & Pires, 2010).

In conclusion, forest offers invaluable economic services and direct marketable good and service to the various countries of the world. Deforestation is a worldwide issue that should be address at the country, regional, and global levels. Even though worldwide campaigns have been used to reduce the rates of forest loss, effort still needs to be put in place to avoid future impacts on human livelihoods, welfare, environment, and the global economy. Therefore, appropriate and effective mitigation measures must be put in place to curb unsustainable exploitation of forest resources, both at individual and industrial levels.

Assignment 2: White Paper

Deforestation and Mitigation

Executive Summary

Forests are very important to everyone. They directly or indirectly support millions of persons in the world and over 80% of the Earth’s biological diversity. Again, forests drive local and global, hydrological, and climatic cycles, therefore; they contribute to climate change when cut down at a rate exceeding their regeneration rates (Tucker & Townshend 2000). Furthermore, a lot of scientific studies assert that forest destructions and deforestations are the third most contributors to greenhouse gases that cause global warming and climate change. Also, there are proofs that deforestations contribute thrice the greenhouse gases released from global transport sector (Potter, 1999).

Forests are biological resources, which are very sensitive to unsustainable exploitations because if the rate of cutting down the stands exceed the rate of natural regeneration, then decline in forest cover results. In this regard, forest management and conservation become mandatory if humanity still wants to tap the values from the natural resources. Therefore, a workable idea is to conserve forest carefully by avoiding forest cuttings, illegal loggings, and unscrupulous forest extraction methods. Alternatively, tree planting should be embraced as a technique to replace the felled stands, however, some planted trees grow very slowly that delay forest regenerations (Kummer & Turner 1994).

As human population continues to grow, with the advancement in world industrial activities, deforestation will continue to exacerbate to severe levels. Simultaneously, droughts and increased instances of forest fires worsen the situation of climate change and increase the vulnerability of the world population to the food crisis. Therefore, to mitigate deforestation, the reasons behind tree cutting must be understood, and then plausible alternatives adopted to reduce direct reliance on the sensitive ecosystem.

That is why; this paper explores the potential strategies that must be implemented to curb deforestation. The best approach is to address the human causes of deforestations because they are the main contributors (Tucker & Townshend 2000). In addition to this, deforestation of tropical rainforest being the highest in the world, particularly in the developing countries, mitigation measures must be prioritize in African, Asian, and Latin America.

Introduction

Forest degradation occurs when trees in forested regions are subjected to land use change, for instance, an area covered by forest is converted to ranches, urban buildings, settlements, infrastructure, or for agricultural purposes. According to Costa and Pires (2010), forest loss affects natural system cycles, which include water, weather, soil, and atmosphere circulations.

Deforestation has a lot of negative impacts to the world population, environment, and the economy. Notably, loss of forest cover is based on social, economic, and political grounds; hence these factors form the bottom line of formulating strategies to address deforestation. Logging operations, for wood and paper products, have resulted to countless tree stands cut, particularly when the action is illegal (Tucker & Townshend 2000). Moreover, commercial trade on wood products, for example, hardwood from Central and Western Africa, threatens the long-term existence of the African rainforest.

Climate change and deforestation calls for effective and careful management tools to save both biological and geophysical functions of forests. Suggested measures include limited fragmentation, landscape management, education, and regulation, creating protected forest zone amongst others like adopting green energy (United Nations Development Programme, 2000). Further, strict laws and policies on forest resources must be in place to heavily prosecute illegal loggers and scrapping out impunity when environmental crimes are committed.

Factors Driving Deforestation

Causes of deforestation are profoundly multiple on the local, regional, and global scale. However, all the drivers of deforestation are based on social, economic, and political factors. Social factors define the society and how they relate to the forests, for example, most small-scale farmers and hunter-gatherer communities directly relate to the forest. On the other hand, economic factors relate to the levels of industrialization and how the industries source their inputs from the forest while political factors define the territorial boundaries and regulations put in place to monitor forest exploitation.

All over the world, intensive and extensive agriculture have led to the conversion of vast lands previously covered by forest. Furthermore, commercial trade on forest resources and illegal logging contribute to loss of tree stands. Other causes of deforestation include overexploitation, forest fires, wood fuel extraction, industrial growth, urban sprawl. It is worth noting that, all the possible sources are categorized as either natural or human, with the latter being the most severe and accelerating.

Mitigating Deforestation

Mitigation measures are the remedial interventions that eliminate or reduce the current rates of deforestation to ensure recovery of forest resources. When the lost forest is restored, biodiversity, soil, climate, and human welfare are improved to the better. Therefore, solving deforestation should be based on feasible and practical policies and conservation measures to necessitate sustainability and restoration (Kummer & Turner 1994). Several strategies that can be used to restore the lost treasure include:

Sustainable Agricultural Practices

Sustainability in agriculture involves integrated systems that incorporate crops and tree, particularly known as agroforestry. The mechanism ensures that farmers benefit from both the crops and tree stands. However, the practice has not been much developed in many parts of the world despite the benefits that come with it. Trees in croplands have multipurpose; for example, they serve as shelterbelts, enrich the soil, reduce soil erosion, improve yields, and create a microclimate. To appropriately commission such projects, countries should employ communities or public, private partnership (PPP) with the guide of agricultural and forestry agencies.

Monitoring Deforestation

Through aerial photography and satellite imagery, incidences of illegal logging can be monitored, which forms the base line of prosecuting the environmental crimes. Further, the monitoring and surveillance will necessitate a creation of a database on forest resource through hotspot analysis to guide prioritization of interventions (Tucker & Townshend 2000). Digital analysis done on satellite imagery has to great extent reduced deforestation in Brazilian Amazon.

Reforestation and Forest Plantations

Reforestation is planting of trees where the indigenous forest had been disturbed. To ensure the effectiveness, fast growing trees are encouraged, though; care must be taken to avoid the proliferation of the planted trees at an ecological expense (Potter, 1999). For example, impact assessment of most eucalyptus species has to be carried out to match the tree requirements and the ecology of a particular area. Again, forest plantations are important because they provide the industries with materials inputs and to reduce reliance on natural forest for wood products. Plantations have a yield capacity of 5-10 times that of the natural forests so it is essential to plant and manage fast growing tree species (Kummer & Turner 1994).

Forest Management

Management involves conservation and consideration of sustainability in utilization of forest resources. Secondly, management also means protection. When the forest is severely destroyed, utilization is ceased to create protected forest zones (Kummer & Turner 1994). These zones are out of bounds for all forms of use as the tree stands are left on their natural state. On the other hand, conservation allows people to tap the resources from the forest but, in an ecologically sustainable manner. Also, nature conservancies have been used in many parts of the world to raise endangered plant species and to raise seedlings. In Asia and some parts of Africa such as Senegal, communities based organizations raise seedlings and sell to the forestry agencies or donate to green schools and youth organizations.

Land Use Planning

All development must be environmental friendly, for example, growth of urban centers should not compromise the growth of indigenous forest. Instead, green towns need to integrate trees and concrete infrastructures (green structures). On the other hand, urban sprawl can be reduced by developing the rural areas. In a nutshell, before any land use is converted to another, precautionary measures should be put in place for planning and avoiding future consequences (Potter, 1999).

Eco-Forestry and Community Forestry

Only selected tree should be cut to ensure sustainable exploitation. This technique has minimal damages and gives the forest adequate time to recover. This selectivity permits commercial timber extraction in an ecologically sound scale. Furthermore, community forestry is done on local levels to allow the community to participate and manage local forests (Tucker & Townshend 2000).

Environmental Litigation

Laws and policies that govern forest resources must be complied with, failure to which, the offender faces the legal structure without going impunity. The litigation process must clearly outline the fines involved ensuring that the offenders pay as the civil laws or Acts entrench. Similarly, public policies should be developed to create incentives among the people for conservation and sustainable utilization of forests (Kummer & Turner 1994).

Adopting Alternative Sources of Energy

Wood fuel extraction is the world major cause of deforestation, meaning that if people divert to alternative energy source, the forest benefits. The most efficient and clean energy is solar, which can be installed even to the remote households (Potter, 1999). Again, relevant policies should govern charcoal production, which a significant contributor to tree cuttings, particularly in the poverty stricken areas.

Conclusion

Deforestation is a worldwide environmental issue that have led to complex network of problems, which can be trickled down to land degradation, climate change, and global warming, loss of biodiversity, reduces renewable resources, loss of human wellbeing, and livelihoods. Notably, loss of forest negatively affects the valuable ecosystem services, which are life supporting systems. The conversions of natural forest to other land use are caused by manmade and natural causes, the former being very accelerating. To curb future consequences, mitigation measures must be implemented and sustained. The tropical and temperate rainforest are the most threatened forest ecosystems in the world, and, therefore, prompt interventions must be implemented. Conclusively, reducing deforestation will benefit the world population, environment, and the global economy. Even though worldwide campaigns have been used to reduce the rates of forest loss, effort still needs to be put in place to avoid future impacts.

References

Andersen, L. E. (2002). The dynamics of Deforestation and Economic Growth in the Brazilian Amazon. Cambridge : Cambridge Univ. Press.

HYPERLINK “http://www.bibme.org/” o “Edit this item” Boahene, K. (1998). The Challenge of Deforestation In Tropical Africa: Reflections On Its Principal Causes, Consequences And Solutions. Land Degradation & Development, 9(3), 247-258.

Cardenas, H. O. G. (2008). Causes and Consequences of Deforestation and Land-Cover Change in Rural Communitites of Western Mexico.

HYPERLINK “http://www.bibme.org/” o “Edit this item” Costa, M. H., & Pires, G. F. (2010). Effects Of Amazon And Central Brazil Deforestation Scenarios On The Duration Of The Dry Season In The Arc Of Deforestation. International Journal of Climatology, 30(13), 1970-1979.

Durham, W. H., & Painter, M. (1998). The Social Causes of Environmental Destruction in Latin America. Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press.

HYPERLINK “http://www.bibme.org/” o “Edit this item” Kummer, D. M., & Turner, B. L. (1994). The Human Causes of Deforestation in Southeast Asia. BioScience, 44(5), 323.

Lambin, E. F., & Geist, H. (2006). Land-Use and Land-Cover Change: Local Processes and Global Impacts. Berlin: Springer.

Margulis, S. (2004). Causes of Deforestation of the Brazilian Amazon. Washington, D.C: World Bank.

Palo, M., & Vanhanen, H. (2000). World Forests from Deforestation to Transition?. Dordrecht : Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Pearce, D. W., & Brown, K. (1994). The Causes of Tropical Deforestation: The Economic and Statistical Analysis of Factors Giving Rise to the Loss of the Tropical Forests. Vancouver : UBC Press.

Potter, C. S. (1999). Terrestrial Biomass and the Effects of Deforestation on the Global Carbon Cycle. BioScience, 49(10), 769.

Sunderlin, W. D., Resosudarmo, I. A. P., & Center for International Forestry Research. (1996). Rates and Causes of Deforestation in Indonesia: Towards a Resolution of the Ambiguities. Jakarta, Indonesia: Centre for International Forestry Research.

Tucker, C. J., & Townshend, J. R. (2000). Strategies for monitoring tropical deforestation using satellite data. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 21(6-7), 1461-1471.

United Nations Development Programme. (2000). World Resources 2000-2001: People and Ecosystems : the Fraying Web of Life. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science.

Vajpeyi, D. K. (2001). Deforestation, Environment, and Sustainable Development: A Comparative Analysis. Westport, Conn : Praeger.

Dehydration Water affects nearly all body systems as well as all dimensions of health

Dehydration

Introduction

Water affects nearly all body systems as well as all dimensions of health. Physical health is highly dependant on provision of water and other minerals in adequate amounts. Water as described by Ross, Turner & Insel (2009) is the simplest nutrient chemically and also one of the most important. One is able to survive for a long time without some essential nutrients in the body or even go without food for a couple of days, but is not able to survive without water. This is because many roles in the body are associated with many functions in the body. These roles include transport of wastes and nutrients, control of body temperature and joints lubrication. The body is made up of approximately 60% water and so the constant intake of water is recommended for all to maintain adequate hydration levels. Water is not only found in beverages, but also in other foods including fruits and vegetables. Though the body makes water through chemical reactions, additional intake is required for the necessary functions to be met.

Functions of Water in the Body

As explored by Ross et al (2009) and Nix (2005), water provides a solvent in which chemical reactions take place in the body. These reactions are termed as hydrolytic because their activity requires water. Hydrolytic reactions in the body are essential for metabolic processes to take place including those involved with tissue building and energy production. Water is found in blood and other secretions in the body. For this reason, it circulates in the body transporting oxygen as well as other necessary nutrients. Metabolism is essential to ensure cell survival. Oxygen and other elements required for metabolic processes are transported through water. By-products and excretions are also transported from the cell to the various organs in the body responsible for their excretion to avoid toxicity.

Water is essential for the regulation of body temperature. As the temperature increases in the surrounding, water is excreted from the body though the skin in form of sweat so as to maintain body temperature. It is however vital to note that water loss should be supplement by water intake in prevention of dehydration. Spaces within tissues are filled with water to give the body a form and structure. Apart from blood, muscles are tissues that contain the highest percentage of water. The other function that is played by water in muscles is the provision of lubrication for ease in locomotion (Nix, 2005).

Effects of Dehydration

Dehydration is a major cause of death worldwide particularly in infants as well as the weak elderly (Ross et al, 2009). In infants, dehydration is caused by gastrointestinal infections that cause excessive vomiting and diarrhoea. These symptoms when prolonged lead to severe water loss from the body. If untreated, this water loss that is equivalent to 20% weight loss can lead to a coma and ultimately death. Dehydration also causes the extensive damage of the skin compromising its activity of protecting the body from loss of water.

Dehydration as discussed by Ross et al (2009) reduces physical and mental activities of an individual. Dark urine, dry mouth, Fatigue and headache are the early signs of dehydration. The darkening of urine to a dark colour is attributed by the body’s attempt to conserve water by reabsorption in the kidney.

Effects of Electrolytes

Electrolytes are chemicals that become ion in when in solution. Potassium, sodium and chloride are the main electrolytes that control water balance in he body. Their regulation is essential for the normal functioning of the body. Sodium ion is the major cation in extracellular fluid which is excreted in urine when in excess. While potassium is the main cation found in intracellular fluid. Sodium standardizes the quantity of water in the body. A high increase of sodium in comparison to water can be due to extreme water loss through diarrhoea and vomiting, little or no water intake and due to a kidney disease. Alternatively, a decrease of sodium occurs when there is a high ratio of water in relation to water. Contrary to sodium, potassium decrease is caused by excessive loss of water through vomiting, diarrhoea and sweating. Chloride ions are the major negative involved in water and acid balance in the body (Nix, 2005).

Effects of Caffeine and Alcohol

As discussed by Kovacs in the article “Dehydration – A major cause of decreased human sports performance!” caffeinated drinks as well as alcohol in increase water loss from the body through urine. These drinks should most especially be avoided if one is in hot climate or during exercise. This is because in addition to water loss through urine after taking alcohol and caffeinated drinks, high temperature and exercise also lead to loss of water through sweat. Although most people have a tendency of taking caffeinated drinks before exercise for energy than they tend to take alcohol, one should note that overnight drinking can lead to excessive dehydration during a morning work out. Therefore, high levels of water intake should be observed after taking caffeinated drinks and alcohol.

Preventing Dehydration

The best and most simple way to avoid dehydration as explored in the article “Dehydration – A major cause of decreased human sports performance!” is the constant intake of fluids. Water is sufficient to replace all the fluids lost during exercise, increase in temperature and in the event of gastrointestinal infections that cause diarrhoea and vomiting. However, water alone is not able to replace other minerals that are lost during dehydration. When one is involved in strenuous exercises it is advisable to take other fluids containing sodium, potassium and chlorides.

When taking alcohol or caffeinated drinks, one should ensure that they take lots of fluids to replace water that is lost through urine. In case of water loss as a result of gastrointestinal infections, one is required to increase the intake of water. The simplest way to deal with loss of water and electrolytes in this case is to take a mixture of water and pure salt or sugar to replenish their loss (Ross et al, 2009).

References

Kovacs, M. “Dehydration – A major cause of decreased human sports performance!” Sports Nutrition. 2000.

Nix, S. (2005). Williams’ Basic Nutrition and Diet Therapy. St. Louis: Elsevier Mosby. Print.

Ross, D., Turner, E. & Insel, P. (2009). Discovering Nutrition. Canada: Jones & Bartlett. Print.

Deinstitutionalization What are the services provided by mental health courts

Deinstitutionalization

Student:

Institution:

Deinstitutionalization

What are the services provided by mental health courts?

Mental health courts are classified along other problem solving courts. Mental health courts are intentioned at deinstitutionalization of the criminal justice system. There are a variety of services that are offered by these courts, they include;

Crisis intervention: this is a judicial process which involves activities aimed at helping the convicted persons to regain their bio-psychological stability. The courts develop individualized programs depending on the assessment done on the persons sentenced under the court. The aim of crisis intervention is to ensure that the convicted person is able to relate properly with the society and that his interpersonal skills can be improved (Berman, & John, 2005).

Probation: the probation process includes supervision of an individual’s character by a court officer in order to ensure that he attains the conditions that have been set to him by the court. A court can extend the probation from a jail term and can also subject a convict to probation without a jail term.

Mental health courts sentence an individual’s to a probation expecting them to behave like other normal persons (especially) during the probation period. Also, the courts may subject a convict to probation giving him strict orders not to cause any harm on the persons and/or property near him (Redlich, Allison D. et al. 2005).

Parole case loads: parole is closely antagonized with probation. The main difference is that in probation, the courts set out the conditions that the convicted persons have to fulfill during the time of probation. On the other hand, a parole is a situation where the courts release a convict after proclaiming that he will fulfill some conditions which lead to his release (Sarah, and Darius, 2012).

Mental health courts allow for persons with psychiatric problems to declare that they will fulfill the conditions before releasing them. The courts must justify that the convict is fully aware of the repercussions of the declaration and that the convict makes such declarations without being coerced (Council of State Governments 2005).

How do these services benefit the prisoners?

The deinstitutionalization carried out by the mental health courts is beneficial to the prisoners in different ways.

Freedom of movement: prisoners who are deinstitutionalized by the mental health courts are able to gain their freedom of movement. While this may be limited movement (sometimes the courts may withhold international transport documents), the movements made by the prisoners is less confined than the movements of prisoners within the prison walls (Berman, & John, 2005).

Freedom of interaction: deinstitutionalized person have more liberty to interact with the outside society. The interaction is important in building the career and other life skills of the prisoner. The prisoners are also able to re-enter the society earlier than in other normal courts (Sarah, and Darius, 2012).

Bio-psychology therapy: as noted above, the courts enroll the convicts into bio-psychology therapy which is designed with an aim of managing their psychiatric position. Success of this process is a considering factor in whether the society will be able to have confidence on the convict again. The therapy also ensures that the person can regain his normal legal status including ability to own property, right to sue and be sued among other legal status. For persons who were earlier not able to start their own families, a successful therapy will give them this chance (Sarah, and Darius, 2012).

How do these compare to the services already available through the existing criminal justice system?

Rehabilitation of character versus rehabilitation of psychiatric condition

The developments in criminal justice system have been insisting on the rehabilitation of character. Thus, a person who has been in custody is expected to re-enter the society as a clean person who is ready for responsible citizenship. On the other hand, persons who undergo bio-psycho therapy is expected to regain his psychological stability as well as regaining good morals that are paramount in the re-entering of the prisoners into the society once they have completed their prison terms (Goldkamp, and Cheryl 2000).

Mental health courts versus other problem solving courts

Mental health’s courts are having the mandate of ensuring that crime which is committed by persons who have psychiatric problems have been minimized. As explained through the paper, the officers must exercise their duty bearing in their mind that the convicts do not have stable mental condition. However, other problem solving courts carry out their duties without minding about the mental stability of the convicts (Council of State Governments 2005).

Institutionalized vs. deinstitutionalized sentences

The normal criminal justice system has options for both institutionalized and deinstitutionalized sentences for convicts. Institutionalized sentences are situations where the convicts have to serve their term within the confines of prison walls. On the other hand, mental health courts are overly deinstitutionalized system where the convicts are sentenced to community service and other sentences that do not include prison terms (Berman, & John, 2005).

Do the research findings support the establishment of more mental health service programs to imprisoned mentally ill populations?

According to research findings in Council of State Governments Justice Center’s article, mental health courts have proven to reduce the tension on convicts who are already prisoners of their own actions. The report contends that there has been a challenge of finding parole in these cases since the level of understanding among the convicts is low (Council of State Governments 2005). Judge Goodman of Indiana who has been championing deinstitutionalization of criminal cases against mentally challenged persons argues that, the PAIR program which was initiated in 1990’s was key to identifying ways to help individual convicts (Sarah, and Darius, 2012).

Bureau of Justice Assistance has indicated that the 120 courts which it oversees are able to come up with solutions faster since the judges are aware of the mental conditions of the convicts are specially trained in dealing with the case. The judges are more empowered in basing their judgment on the report of the psychological officer dealing with the case (Council of State Governments 2005).

What can be done to improve these services further?

One of the key issues that will help the success of this deinstitutionalized system is staffing. The system requires personalized programs and attention in each case. This can only be achieved by ensuring that there are enough people on the ground to develop the programs and monitor the movements of persons in probation and/ or parole (Goldkamp, and Cheryl 2000). In increasing the size of staff, the responsible authorities should consider qualified [persons in psychology and criminology. A balance between these two key professionalisms that are required will help in attaining the two main objectives of the system;

Rehabilitating the character of the convicts

Rehabilitating the mental condition of the convicts (Berman, & John, 2005)

References

Berman, Greg; John Feinblatt (2005). Good Courts: The Case for Problem-Solving Justice. New York, New York: The New Press

Council of State Governments (2005). A Guide to Mental Health Court Design and Implementation. New York, NY: Council of State Governments, 2005.

Goldkamp, John S. and Cheryl Irons-Guynn (2000). Bureau of Justice Assistance. Emerging Judicial Strategies For the Mentally Ill in the Criminal Caseload: Mental Health Courts in Fort Lauderdale, Seattle, San Bernardino, and Anchorage. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice

Redlich, Allison D. et al. (2005). The Second Generation of Mental Health Courts. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law. 2005 Dec Vol 11(4)

Sarah, R. and Darius, W. (2012). ‘Diversion of Offenders with Mental Disorders: Mental Health Courts’ 1 Web Journal of Current Legal Issues

DELAY ON PROJECT COMPLETION

DELAY ON PROJECT COMPLETION

Name:

Course:

Instructor:

Date:

Hello sir,

The project we initiated will take a few months later before its completion. I have stipulated the reasons as so are happening. This will happen for the good of the organisation. The engineers informed me that there would be a delay for about three months for its completion. I enquire for the reason, and that they had for me. First the construction should be left for some time for the cement to dry. This is to avoid the building from collapsing. Secondly they informed me that they have few skilled labours as the majority are unskilled. They have to take their time in good supervision and participation in the, construction. Third reason is the delay by the supplier of raw material. Last week, he told that he was transporting them from, and that is likely to take approximately two to three weeks for its arrival. Better still we are patient because we assigned him the contract for he has assured us he would deliver them very soon.

Lastly the engineer requested to take a leave that is off duty during the month of Ramadhan since they are Muslims and their belief should be respected. I went ahead and offered them when that time comes. From the reasons, it is evidently that the project will not be completed as the time sets. However these reasons will not cost any cent that means that the budget will remain the same as set by the committee.

References

Gabarro, J. J., & Kotter, J. P. (2008). Managing your boss. Boston, Mass: Harvard Business School Press.

Deliberate exclusion

Name:

Institution:

Course:

Tutor:

Date:

Discussion Questions

Question 1:

The court put in consideration various factors before reaching a decision. To begin with, it determined whether Kodak had monopoly power and after establishing this, it delved into determining whether the decision that was undertaken by Kodak was informed by the need to protect its patented parts as well as copyrighted works. The court then evaluated various competing interests of the public policy and found out that Kodak’s decision to protect the others form its patented and copyrighted work had devastating effects on the consumer base. In this regard, Kodak’s decision to exclude some consumers such as independent service organizations can be considered to be unethical and needs to be shunned. From a business point of view, all consumers are major stakeholders in a given business entity and therefore their needs need to be addressed accordingly. Deliberate exclusion form benefiting from the services and products of this company undermined the degree of happiness of the respective consumers. From a utilitarian standpoint, this is immoral because it reduces the level of happiness of the consumers.

Question 2:

In this case, the agreement between Northeast and Wellington was not bound by any fiduciary like obligations. For this reason, Northeast was not obligated to provide any adverse information about the clients to Wellington. The court ruled in favor of Wellington because in light of the contract agreement, Northeast was solely required to find and present suitable candidates as opposed to performing the services provided by an investment consultant or banker which are bound by fiduciary like obligations. Ruling otherwise would have accorded Northeast other obligates that were not initially presented in the contract. The court also ruled in favor of Northeast because this organization fulfilled its role as required by the contract. Put differently, it found and presented Wellington with a willing buyer of its investment.

There are various risk factors that the management needed to have reviewed prior to finalizing and implementing the acquisition agreement. To begin with, the management of Wellington needed to have reviewed the credibility of Sternau’s companies as well as their reputation. Prior analysis in this regard would have been useful in enabling Wellington to make informed financial decisions either before or after entering the acquisition agreement. Besides understanding the history of Sternau’s companies Wellington organization also needs to have evaluated the investment options that it had at its disposal. Likewise, this would have been useful in enabling it to make credible financial decisions and to define its position in the acquisition contract.

Question 3:

The United States has 94 different federal district courts that also represent the federal trial courts under general jurisdiction. Every district court covers a geographic region that is called a judicial district. The respective locations covered by the each district differ considerably. The District of Columbia, three territories and Puerto Rico have one judicial district each. The remaining states have either two or more judicial districts. The inherent geographic disparity has diverse implications on the quality of service that the citizens are accorded. Arguably, the services provided by judicial districts covering bigger geographical areas as comparatively of lower quality than those covering a smaller geographical area. This is further compounded by the rising population and increasing diversity as well as complexity of social problems.

Question 4:

The constitutional right that the government would be infringing upon under these facts pertains to the student’s right to free speech. Under the US constitution, very individual has a right to communicate his or her ideas, expressions and opinions freely. This is inclusive of the freedom to hold individual opinions without any form of interference. It also involves the right to receive, seek, or impart ideas or information using any form of media irrespective of the frontiers. Expelling the student from the school would certainly infringe upon the rights of the student to free speech.

In addressing this concern, the court would review the school regulations regarding the dress code. Arguably, an education institution that would tae such a step would certainly have strict rules regarding the dress code and the relative expectations of the students. The school would in this regard refer to cases of controversial articles or information on student clothing to shield it self. Also, reference to the right to freedom would be made and the action of the education institution analyzed in light of the respective provisions.

Indeed, there are competing interests that are presented in this case. These need to be balanced in order to foster harmonic co existence between the school principal and the students. Allowing the child to wear the t-shirt would have profound implications on the authority of the learning institution. In particular, this would imply that the student is more powerful than the school authority and might culminate in the occurrence of other detrimental discipline cases. Considering the fact that the information on the t-shirt is a little bit sensitive, allowing the student to wear it would also imply that the respective information is indeed true. This has adverse impacts on the smooth running of the school. Preventing the student form wearing the t-shirt on the other hand would raise various concerns related to the free speech right.

There are various other factors outside the constitution that the court might consider during its decision making. To begin with, it would analyze whether there have been occurrences in the school in the recent past that might have compelled the student to print the writings on the t-shirt. Then, I would also evaluate the past behavior of the student in a bid to determine whether s/he has been involved in discipline matters previously. This would enable the court to ascertain the action and decision of the student in this respect. Further, it would be useful for the court to determine whether the student has had relationship problems with the principal before.

If the t-shirt contained vulgarity or profanity according to community standards, the analysis of the case would not change. This is because the issue lies under the freedom of speech issue and the community is not directly involved in the matter. Finally, it is not a must that the student takes the case to court. There are other viable mechanisms through which the dispute can be resolved. To a great extent, these would be based on the relationship that the student has with the school administration. For instance, negotiation approach to problem resolution can be pursued. In this regard, a third party such as parents of the student or school board would be employed in helping the principal and the student to resolve the problem.

Delinquency Issue in Namibia

Delinquency Issue in Namibia

It is difficult to decide exactly which behaviors make up juvenile delinquency and identify who juvenile delinquents are for the reason that societal views of children change from place to place and over time. The age of the offender is the most essential factor in differentiating between crime and delinquency. One way to characterize juvenile delinquency is to locate the behavior of children on a series of four continua representing duration, frequency, priority and seriousness of the behavior. Discussed herein, with reference to Namibia, is of the fact that delinquency covers many aspect of unacceptable behavior (Belda 2007).

Discussion

One of the possible causes that can be associated with this is the country’s socio-economic circumstances. The overwhelming majority of delinquents in Namibia commit a few minor acts of delinquency on a consistent basis during their teenage years for the reason that they need to support themselves (Hirschi 2002). Some children may commit minor acts of delinquency and only one or more serious crimes in their later stage of development. These individuals usually demonstrate delinquent behavior to evade poverty and unequal social services.

According to Regoli et al. (2011), the most serious delinquents as identified by the Namibian government are known as Life-course persistent offenders. Within this category, delinquents engage in antisocial behavior of one sort or another at every stage of life. What’s more, this category is deeply committed to problematic behavior and has committed many serious offenses over an extended period. The individual within this setting is therefore regarded as a chronic delinquent offender.

The Namibian Government’s effort of putting to a stop delinquent behavior dates back to 1994, when a Legal Assistance Centre was established. On its part, the Legal Assistance Centre in association with the government tried to ensure that they engage their youth in useful ventures that will ensure that the youth are helped to engage in income generating activities through the exploration, realization and development of skill and talent. By so doing, the rate at which the youths engage in delinquent activities will reduce slowly but steadily (Tshiwula 2000).

Conclusion

The age of the offender is the most essential factor in differentiating between crime and delinquency. Life-course persistent offenders are the most serious delinquents as identified by the Namibian government. The Namibian Government’s effort of stopping delinquent behavior dates back to 1994, when a Legal Assistance Centre was established. The center guides, counsels as well as promote talents and skills of the youths thus creating self-employment.

References

Belda, P. (2007). Namibia. Madrid: Ebizguides.

Hirschi, T. (2002). Causes of delinquency. New Brunswick, N.J: Transaction Publishers.

Regoli, R. M., Hewitt, J. D., & DeLisi, M. (2011). Delinquency in society: The essentials. Sudbury, Mass: Jones and Bartlett Publishers.

Tshiwula, L. (2000). Crime and delinquency in Namibia. Pretoria: Kagiso Publishers.

Delinquency Prevention Program

Delinquency Prevention Program

(Author’s name)

(Institutional Affiliation)

Delinquency Prevention Program in the state of California

Youthful offenders in California up to the age of twenty five years are provided with treatment and education by the Division of Juvenile Justice. The program concerns itself with juvenile offenders with intense and criminal backgrounds, and who have extreme treatment needs. In the modern society, youth offenders are taken to various faculties in their communities in order to be close to their family. Also, the youth offenders need to access social and local services that will help them when being rehabilitated. The population represented by DJJ is quite low at one percent despite the fact that last year 225000 youth were arrested last year in California.

Treatment, vocational and academic programs are provided by the Division of Juvenile Justice. Furthermore it addresses medical care, mental health programs, substance abuse, sex offender behavior, criminogenic and violent behavior. The activities takes place in a secure and safe environment that is quite conducive for learning. The Alameda Superior Court is responsible for guiding the treatment plans as a result of the Farrell lawsuit settlement agreement. The youth offenders are assigned to live in houses based upon their specialized treatment needs, risk of institutional violence, gender and age. The youth in the different living units are housed in few numbers because of the limited staffing levels. This ensures that the youth receive effective rehabilitative and attention programming.

The DJJ has a framework that focuses on the Integrated Behavior Treatment Model. It has been specifically designed to reduce future criminal behavior as well institutional violence. It is intended to provide the youth with personal skills that will assist them in managing their environment much better. The staff at DJJ is from various professional fields and they work as teams to be fully aware of the youth’s needs. This in turn assists them to come up with a treatment program that is individualized to address the problems facing the youth offenders. The team collaborates with the youth in order to deliver a case plan that will take full advantage of the personal strength of the youth. Lastly, it seeks to administer treatment in the other areas in the life of the youth offender in order to ensure that they do not become repeat offenders.

The program being offered at DJJ has proven to be extremely successful in many ways. It has been able to operate as a school district that is fully accredited and provided the youth with high school education. Most of the youth have attended the education program and in turn some of them have become eligible for parole. In fact, since the year 2004, as many as 5632 youth offenders have achieved academic success. The education program aimed at the high school students has seen a 300 percent increase in the number of enrolled youth. At the same time, this has been taking place while the population at DJJ declined by at least 56 percent. The DJJ has also come up with a program whereby the youth raise butterflies in a habitat garden. This project has been effective in restoring the belief that the youth can change and have better lives.

In conclusion, the program at Division of Juvenile Justice is quite effective in many aspects. However, if there were some things that I would change about it would be increase the number and variety of activities the youth can participate in. Also, I would provide the youth with jobs that they would do while in the detention center. This would make them more productive once they are out of the program and in society.

Reference

California department of Corrections and Rehabilitation. (2013). Division of Juvenile Justice. Retrieved from HYPERLINK “http://www.cdcr.ca.gov/Juvenile_Justice/index.html” http://www.cdcr.ca.gov/Juvenile_Justice/index.html.