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Darwinism Artificial selection refers to the practice of selecting and domesticating both plants and animals in order to deve

Darwin

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Darwin

Introduction

Artificial selection refers to the practice of selecting and domesticating both plants and animals in order to develop or preserve their desirable features. Humans usually select organisms with desirable traits. The process of domesticating animals began in early prehistory where species such as rice, wheat and dogs were selected and domesticated. Darwin coined the phrase “selective breeding” since he was using the process to illustrate his proposed broad process of “natural selection” (Gregory, 2009). He observed that many domesticated plants and animals had unique properties developed by intentional breeding from individuals with desirable characteristics.

In artificial selection, the breeder (whether of dogs, cattle, pigeons et cetera) selected parents considered desirable for each generation and destroys the undesirable types (Hall, 2011). Since the chosen parents may give birth to a variety of offspring, the breeder has the option of selecting the breeds in a particular direction until the desired traits are consistently present. A common example is how humans selected dogs thousands of years ago. The various dog variants originate from a single species Canis lupus. Dogs can now range in size from St. Bernard to Chihuahua.

Robert Bakewell was a renowned breeder in the 19th century. He used native stock of sheep to breed to select large sheep with fine bones and long-lustrous wool. Using the Lincoln Longwool, he was able to develop the New Leicester. The sheep was widely exported in Australia and North America during the 18th century. However, due to a change in market demand and preferences, the New Leicester was not appealing anymore. Only a few of its species are present today. An example is the English Leicester, which is kept to provide wool. The change in meat preferences and textiles selected against the New Leicester. Other species of sheep with better quality meat and wool were developed; hence, they were able to survive in the market.

When individuals look for animals to breed, they look for appealing features in those animals that will suit their intended purpose. Sometimes, they may need crossbreeds to produce a different kind of stock with superior abilities. While in the market, they search closely for this features and would not take chances in finding the one that is desirable. For example, if the individual wants to breed chicken as layers, he intends to receive a certain number of eggs from the chicken. The layer must have the ability to withstand given environmental conditions and should resistant to diseases. Chicken lacking the desired features are selected against (Grandin & Johnson, 2005).

In plant breeding, the farmer selects for those plants that are high yielding and resistant to the environmental conditions present where they are cultivated. Plants which are resistant to pests and disease and give low quality output are uprooted and selected against. However, for plants which are high yielding but susceptible to pests and diseases attack, the farmer can decide to modify the environmental conditions of growth. By modifying the above mentioned processes, the farmer prolongs the lifespan of his plants. The environment cannot select against their growth.

Selective breeding in aquaculture improves the genetic potential of fish and shellfish. Selection of Atlantic salmon, for example, led to the increase of its body weight. The traits for which selection was carried out included growth rate, protein and energy retention, as well as feed consumption. The selected fish doubled in their growth rate with an increased feed intake as well as protein and energy retention. As a result, the selected salmonids had 20% better feed conversion efficiency than the wild type. Furthermore, these salmonids have a higher resistance to both and viral toxins. Storset et al (2007) exhibited 29.3% death rate relative to the wild salmons.

Taming cyprinids resulted in improvement of growth, shape as well as resistance to diseases. Kirpichnikov et al (1974), states that experiments conducted in USSR utilised crossings of brood stocks to elevate genetic assortment and qualities such as growth rate, viability and external traits. The outcome indicated faster development and forbearance to cold. There was a 30-40% improvement in cold tolerance. The selected cyprinids showed a lower mortality of 11.5%, while the unselected one showed a 57%.

Selection for pacific Oysters showed tremendous improvements compared to the wild species. Sydney oysters revealed a 4% growth rate by the end of one generation which subsequently improved to fifteen percent after the next. “Rossmore” Oysters in a harbour exhibited better resistance to pathogenic microorganisms; this was as opposed to different Irish strains. Over the years, the Oysters have shown the prevalence to infection and percentage mortality. Selectively bred Eastern Oyster showed resistance against multiple strains of parasites. After making dual selections year after year in four generations, they achieved successful dual resistance. The oysters exhibited reduced susceptibility to infections.

There is no doubt that Darwin considered the same process by which plants and animals were domesticated to develop the principle of natural selection. This process of adaptive evolution is present in the wild. Darwin (1859, p.4) gives an overview of how domesticated animals and cultivated plants can offer the best approach into natural selection. In his early pamphlet, Darwin worked out his theory of natural selection with reference to the domestication.

Darwin’s analogy between domestication and domestication is useful in providing a model for adaptive evolution, despite the controversy in both science and history. He considered two types of artificial selection, in addition to natural selection. Methodical selection guides man to modify a breed according to a predetermined standard (Gregory, 2009; p.6). Unconscious selection follows the act of naturally preserving the most valuable organisms while destroying the least valuables, without alteration of the breed.

The three types of selection: natural, methodical and unconscious, are linked by a common similarity. This similarity involves a non-random difference in the reproductive success of individual species based on heritable traits. The difference explains why some species will reproduce while others become extinct. Emshwiller (2006), states that the form of artificial selection which Darwin coined methodical selection, has been called “deliberate” or “intentional” selection.

Methodical selection involves a process where humans actively choose individuals from an available sample in order to preserve, and thereafter enhance traits of interest. Unconscious selection is much more passive form of selection than methodical selection and involves no intent whatsoever. Humans have the capacity to determine the individuals that will contribute most to the next generation. Natural selection dwells at this far continuum, where an individual’s reproductive success is not determined by selective breeding or cultivation.

Humans are responsible for creating various conditions in which natural selection operates. For instance, man can treat a bacterial colony with an antibiotic. This instigates natural selection where mutant bacteria in which mutants resistant to the antibiotic survive, reproduce and pass mutated genes to their offspring, a phenomenon which non-resistant cannot do. Humans can also impose selection in the form of selective predation. They can do this by capturing large fish and releasing small ones, to force natural selection smaller size at maturity.

By looking at animal breeding and plant cultivation as a means of artificial selection, Darwin was able to establish the power of selection in changing living organisms (Gregory, 2009; p. 6). He wished to convey that his studies of artificial selection formed the basis of his discovery of natural selection. His recognition of artificial selection as a key process in taming wild animals and plants primed him to conceive the concept of natural selection.

Artificial selection acts by allowing differential reproductive success to organisms with different genetically determined traits so as to increase the desirable features in the population. However, unlike natural selection, artificial selection does not essentially convey greater fitness. Artificially selected traits are based only on the qualities the breeder wants form the cultivated plants or domesticated animals. The traits are selected for by allowing only the individual that possesses the trait to reproduce, while those that lack the trait are prevented.

Since artificial selection involves the process of choosing traits for a long time, this can lead to genetic changes. Genomics can be used to ascertain various genes across the entire genome that has been altered during the intense period of domestication. Understanding these genomics offers a view into the genetic effects of both artificial selection and natural selection, the basis of Darwin’s evolution theory.

During the domestication, individuals undergo intense selective pressures which modify their genomes. The process of domestication largely focuses on core traits which define domesticated species. In seed or grain crops, these traits include seed size, reduction in natural seed dispersal, the annual cycle, as well as reduced lateral branching. The process of domestication, by which a few species are cultivated and selected against, results in very strong selective pressures. The genomes of these individuals usually lack diversity, as seen in the selective sweep.

The process of selection requires transmissible variation which arises by chance. Selection can be lacking if individuals are the same or if the differences among individuals are not inherited. It is crystal clear that Darwin recognised this principle, even though he knew the mechanism of inheritance. Furthermore, selection does not cause variation; hence, no severity of strength of preference can make the beneficial features appear. Although a man lacks the power to cause or prevent the variability, he can select, conserve, and accumulate the various traits given to him by nature in any way he chooses. Therefore, the desirable trait to be selected exist in a minority of organisms, or are introduced from outside by cross-breeding.

Artificial selection, as demonstrated by Darwin, states that continued selection was powerful enough to cause observable features in any species. His claim that natural selection could cause even greater changes than domestication and lead to speciation may be reasonable. Darwin saw selection and survival instead of extinction as important. He collected and analysed a huge amount of evidence for artificial selection. From this data and further enquiries, he obtained clear evidence that the artificial selection could have been marked by hereditary changes. Ergo, Darwin revolutionised the study of nature by taking real variations among actual things as central to the reality.

The problem with Darwin’s theory is its inability to explain how selection distinguishes each small modification. With many traits like size, a small change may hardly be enough to confer a significant advantage to an organism, whereas a large change can easily be selected. Another aspect of the problem is how to determine the initial adaptive level for which a trait a trait or organ must reach to be selected. If a trait already existed before selection, may be some quantitative expression of the trait may suffice for further evolution. If the trait barely existed, how could selection act on it (Hall, 2011)?

Natural selection is a means by which various species can adapt to changing conditions over a longer period of time. In any generation, the number of species born exceeds those who reach maturity to pass on their traits to the generation of offspring. These species struggle for existence. If we take wheat, for example, some species may grow into taller plants while others may grow into shorter ones. Among these plants, individual wheat output is varied. If the wheat is grown in a windy zone, chances are that the taller plants are likely to be destroyed or bent, leaving the shorter one.

However, among the tall plants, there may be those capable of resisting the wind. These varieties of plants can be harvested and genetically modified through engineering controls to produce plants that are both high yielding and withstand the harsh windy conditions. Therefore, Darwin’s theory is exploited in Agricultural production to produce high yielding species that are resistant environmental disturbances, making it easier for nature to select for them.

References

Hall, K.B. (August 24, 2011). Evolution: Principles and Processes. Jones & Bartlett Publishers,

Dalhousie University.

Gregory, R.T. (January 14, 2009). “Artificial Selection and Domestication: Modern Lessons

from Darwin’s Enduring Analogy.” Evolution Education Outreach, Vol. 2; pp. 5-27.

Grandin, T., & Johnson, C. (2005). Animals in Translation. New York, NY: Scribner. pp. 69-71.

Garland, T. Jr. (2003). Chapter 3, Vertebrate Biomechanics and Evolution. Selection Experiments: An Underutilized Tool in Biomechanics and Organismal Biology. Ed. Bels, VL., Gasc JP., Casinos, A.

Storset A, Strand C, Wetten M, Kjøglum S & Ramstad A. ( 2007). “Response to selection for

resistance against infectious pancreatic necrosis in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.).” Aquaculture 272: 62–68

Kirpichnikov, V.S., IIYAsov, J.I., Shart, L.A., et al. (1993). “Selection of Krasnodar Common

Carp (Cyprinus carpio L.) for Resistance to Dropsy: Principal Results and Prospects.” Aquaculture, 111:7-20.

Darwin, C. (1859). The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of

Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life. London: John Murray; 1859.

Emshwiller E. (2006). Genetic data and plant domestication. In: Zeder MA, Bradley DG,

Emshwiller E, Smith BD, editors. Documenting domestication. Berkeley: University of California Press; pp.99–122.

Netflix Case Analysis

Netflix Case Analysis

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Netflix Case Analysis

I’m providing key aspects of the broader macro and industry environment that Netflix might need to understand better, given its current strategic position based on the case research done by Kemerer and Dunn (2017).

Strategic Positioning

Variety-Based Positioning

Netflix service is divided into two: Traditional DVD mail delivery (control production costs and reduce investment) (p.1) and online streaming, e.g., home-made drama, e.g., House of Cards, won three Emmy Awards (p.5). By April 2017, it had 99 million subscribers worldwide, and by March 2017, it had 50.9 million subscribers in the United States (Exhibit 3 p.9). Netflix is investing heavily in streaming content creation. In 2017 it spent $6 billion, which resulted in a $3.4 billion long-term debt (p.5).

Macro Environment-PESTEL

Political Factors

The uncertainty of government regulatory principle that ISPs should enable access to all content and applicants regardless of the source without favoring or blocking particular products or websites is posing a risk to any decision-making in the digital delivery market (p.7). Additionally, due to political restrictions, Netflix cannot offer content from or to all countries.

Economic Factors

There are more robust streaming services in the industry offered by different competing companies, which may reduce the company’s profitability (p.5). Netflix’s traditional DVD mail delivery is experiencing additional costs due to an increase in mailing rates (p.6). The industry has competitive prices in TV services, which may affect Netflix’s subscriber base (Exhibit 3, p.9).

Social Factors

The company has an increase in online streaming popularity among young people since they are using smartphones (rather than TV) most of the time, along with the rapid pace of modern life, which may kill the traditional DVD mail delivery business (p.5).

Technological Factors

A specific system to save data and lower-resolution versions of streaming files allows subscribers to stream the content; this may kill the traditional DVD mail delivery business (p.3). Additionally, high-speed broadband services that have enabled network access and improved accessibility of streaming services may kill the traditional DVD mail delivery business (p.6).

Legal Factors

“Netflix tax” would possibly hamper the growth of streaming service companies, including Netflix (p.7).

Industry Environment- Porter’s Five Forces, KSF

Threat of New Entrants

It is hard to renew licensing as the content owner dictates the terms leaving Netflix with less inventory (p.4). Also, the industry requires massive capital investment for streaming content, and acquisition of new shows is expensive, and in 2017 Netflix had a budget of $6 billion (p.5). Additionally, some supplier contracts are exclusive, which made Netflix not to get sufficient returns (p.5).

Bargaining Power of Buyer

The variety of choices is available, which may reduce Netflix’s subscriber base (Exhibit 3, p.9). Also, sales and revenue depend on the subscribers; this may result in revenue fluctuations (p.4, Exhibit 1 p.8 & Exhibit 2 p.8). Moreover, there is low switching cost; hence subscribers can cancel the subscription anytime (Exhibit 3, p.9).

Bargaining Power of Supplier

Netflix is obtaining a license to distribute the content from fellow competitor affiliates, which may affect the company’s competitiveness, e.g., acquire new show, licensed content from Hulu (p. 4). Also, online distributors face a higher degree of influence from suppliers compared with traditional broadcasting, e.g., rely on PlayStation to carry Netflix app and rely on cable companies (p. 5).

Threat of Substitutes

Traditional media content providers (e.g., VCR) and other products can provide similar rental DVD services and online streaming (p. 2). Also, Netflix has to update its content library by adding TV shows and movies, which may lead to an increase in long-term debts (p. 5).

Rivalry among Existing Firms

Competing firms are offering affordable prices proving difficult for Netflix to retain customers (p.5 & Exhibit 3, p. 9).

Conclusion

Netflix should better understand its macro and industry environment to have a competitive advantage, make informed investment decisions, and boost profitability.

Recommendations

Netflix has to reduce its rising prices to gain back its competitive advantage. Also, it has to diversify its user base by focusing on traditional DVD mail delivery apart from online streaming to accommodate the older generation. Additionally, it should offer bundled discounts to subscribers who are seeking both streaming availability and DVD rentals to increase subscriber base. Lastly, it should create its content to avoid additional costs of buying new shows from content suppliers.

References

Kemerer, C. F., & Dunn B. K. (2017). NETFLIX INC.: THE DISTRIBUTOR FACES DISRUPTION. Ivy Publishing. Ontario, Canada.

Porter, M. E. (2008). The five competitive forces that shape strategy. Harvard business review, 86(1), 25-40.

Yüksel, I. (2012). Developing a multi-criteria decision making model for PESTEL analysis. International Journal of Business and Management, 7(24), 52.

Darwin-and-Darwinism2

Darwin and Darwinism 

Darwin, despite being well known for his theory of evolution, was not the first one to have taken a step in this direction. It is also well known now that he was not the first naturalist to have proposed the concept of evolution or that species change over time. Before Darwin, Buffon and other naturalists had started introducing ideas related to evolution. However, it was Lamarck who took the first major step in this direction and made a systematic presentation of evolution in 1809. Lamarck is therefore sometimes said to be the forerunner of Darwin.Lamarck’s and Darwin’s theories are considered to be the earliest in history and all the theories that followed are said to be based or to have derived from these two fundamental theories. However wrong Lamarck may believed to be, still his theory is important as it attempts to account for transformation. Therefore, the Lamarckian theory has to be taken seriously and contrasted with the Darwinian theory.The first remarkable difference between the two theories is that Darwin’s theory was a theory of evolution by natural selection , whereas the Lamarck’s theory was based on the “inheritance of acquired characteristics”. However, Lamarck could not present any strong scientific evidence to prove his theory and therefore, it was discarded scientifically.It was Charles Darwin who gave the next significant idea in this field. Lamarck in 1809, gave the theory that the characteristics that a species acquires during its life time can be passed to the next generation. However, it was nearly fifty years later that Darwin brought a significant change with the publication of his theory of evolution. Darwin’s theory of natural selection proved to be a pivotal link in the history of biological evolution. However, there was a missing link in Darwin’s theory and it was the mechanism of inheritance and also he did not give any explanation on the generation of new species. Lamarck’s theory states that environmental changes give rise to new needs which further determines the use or disuse of some organs. Such organs depending on the need develop or diminish and also that the acquired characteristics are hereditary.The voyage of the Beagle was especially important for Darwin. It was a five-year long expedition to South America and the South Pacific. During the voyage Darwin read a book written by Charles Lyell titled Principles of Geology. It was due to this book that Darwin’s interest in the study of land forms rose up. Besides Geology ,Darwin’s theory was also influenced by other allied disciplines. Lyell’s theory of Uniformitarianism had greatly impressed Darwin and along the Beagle voyage, he examined fossils with Lyell’s theory in mind. As Darwin himself mentions in his memoir, about the publication of an abstract of the notes taken onboard the Beagle “ Sir C. Lyell and Dr. Hooker, who both knew of my work –the latter having read the sketch of 1844- honored me by thinking it advisable to publish, with Mr Wallace’s excellent memoir, some brief extracts from my manuscripts.” (Darwin, p. 02) Darwin wrote several notes during the voyage which were later praised by the scientific community on his return to England. Thus, we can see that Beagle voyage proved remarkable due to multiple reasons and the most because it served as a background on which the fundamental ideas formed that later evolved into his famous theory.Darwin’s theory received support from that of Alfred Wallace. As Jacob Bronowski notes’ “ The theory of natural selection was put forward in the 1850s independently by two men. One was Charles Darwin; the other was Alfred Russel Wallace. ” ( Bronowski, p. 219)Besides Charles Lyell and Alfred Wallace, Darwin was also influenced by few other people and their innovations , which gave a new dimension to the thoughts of Darwin . The most notable among them was Thomas Malthus, who was not a scientist but an economist. Darwin was fascinated by his idea especially the one regarding human population and that it was growing faster than food production to sustain. Malthus’s ideas supported the studies done by Darwin. It is said that Darwin came up with the idea of the survival of the fittest after applying Malthus’ ideas.Darwin’s and Wallace’s ideas are considered as the extension of the theory of Uniformitarian . which is one of the most important concepts in Geosciences developed in 18th century by James Hutton and further popularized by Charles Lyell . According to these ideas , catastrophic processes had nothing to do with the landforms left on the surface. These ideas had originated with a Scottish geologist, James Hutton in 1785, who argued that Earth had a long history but it could also be observed and interpreted in the terms of current processes. His ideas did not get much support until Sir Charles Lyell presented evidence which would prove Hutton’s ideas and reject the theory of catastrophism. The theory of evolution is mainly based on the idea that the diversity found on Earth in its species can be explained by the uniform modification of genetic traits over time. Due to this the theory of evolution is also considered an extension of Uniformitarianism .However, the theory propounded by Darwin got several criticism on the ground that the theory of heredity is not viable. The next point of criticism was the age of the Earth, which according to Lord Kelvin was only approximately a hundred million years old , but the processes which Darwin had envisioned were quite slow and therefore the time was insufficient for the process to have happened. However, this problem got solved later in the late nineteenth century with the discovery of radioactivity. The most difficult or rather problematic fact with Darwin’s theory was that Darwin had no direct proof which could explain evolutionary processes that had taken place over very long periods of time, and had not been detected easily in fossil records. Finally, the first proof in this direction was provided in the 1920s in peppered moth which showed a rapid shift in allele frequencies due to strong selection pressure. Soon other examples also followed which genetically explained the Darwin’s theory.Significant criticism of Darwin’s theory has also come from religious sources. Darwin’s theory clashed with religious and philosophical views. The debate between evolutionism and creationism had started with the publishing of Darwin’s “Origin of Species”. Michael Behe – an American Biochemist and Author of several books , in response to Darwin’s theory has said that the cell was a black box to Darwin and its inner workings a mystery. There are a number of similarities between YEC ( Young Earth creationism) and ID ( Intelligent Design), however a significant distinction between them is that YEC does not attempt to identify the intelligent cause responsible for the design in nature. Dawkins, in his book, The Blind Watchmaker, raises a criticism by what he calls the fallacy of “the argument from personal incredulity”. To quote Dawkins-Never say, and never take seriously anybody who says, “I cannot believe that so-and-so could have evolved by gradual selection.”Despite all the debates, Darwin’s theory was revolutionary in itself as was proved in subsequent years. Before his theory, the species were not linked into a single family tree. His theory changed the course of society and science in a revolutionary way.References:

Honeywill, R. (2008). Lamarck’s Evolution: Two Centuries of Genius and Jealousy. New South Wales, Australia: Murdoch Books. Retrieved April 6, 2013

Darwin, C. (1866). On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection: Or The Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life. London: John Murray. Retrieved April 4, 2013

Darwin’s Theory of Evolution. (n.d.). In Bioweb. Retrieved April 5, 2013, from HYPERLINK “http://bioweb.cs.earlham.edu/9-12/evolution/HTML/theory.htm”http://bioweb.cs.earlham.edu/9-12/evolution/HTML/theory.htm

HYPERLINK “http://www.allaboutcreation.org/catastrophism-versus-uniformitarianism-faq.htm”http://www.allaboutcreation.org/catastrophism-versus-uniformitarianism-faq.htm

Bronowski, J. (2011). The Ascent Of Man (pp. 219-222). New York: Random House. Retrieved April 5, 2013HYPERLINK “http://faculty.education.illinois.edu/g-cziko/twd/pdf/twd08.pdf”http://faculty.education.illinois.edu/g-cziko/twd/pdf/twd08.pdf

Bedsole, J. (n.d.). The Blind Watchmaker. In Roadrunner. Retrieved April 1, 2013, from http://home.roadrunner.com/~bedsole/personal/rantz/Watchmaker.html

Nets Next Phase Will Weave Through Your Life

Net’s Next Phase Will Weave Through Your Life

I chose my article from the March 2nd edition of the USA Today. It is entitled “Net’s Next Phase Will Weave Through Your Life.” This article discusses the changes in the near future of the Internet. Since its invention less than a decade ago, the Internet has become part of our everyday life. Businesses and consumers alike have used it for different several reasons to accomplish many different tasks.

But some believe that the growth in the usefulness of the Internet is coming to a halt. Many people consider the Internet a bit worn-out. Investors have seemed to abandon it. Analysts worry that nothing is coming to it. To many users, what was radical just years ago may be becoming monotonous.

But the computer industry is looking to change all that. On the horizon, there’s a new wave of the Internet beginning to break. For most users, the Internet experience will change dramatically over the next year or two. The hope for these changes is that the developments will reunite the industry.

Up to this point, the Net has been almost entirely about viewing content or buying products over the Web through a browser and a personal computer. In the next wave, the browser will no longer be a solo act. It will be part of a much larger system that combines hardware and software together to produce much more than was ever before possible. Craig Mundie, the executive vice president of Microsoft, quotes: “Browsing isn’t bad, and it won’t go away. But the browser will become part of a larger context.”

The Internet will be less about going to big sites like Yahoo and Amazon.com and more about using specialized pieces of software that connect to the Net. Current examples of these types of software include Real Player, Napster, and the Miller Lite Beer Pager. Once one of these programs is loaded onto your PC, they work independently of the browser to do their task very well.

Web sites themselves will also work harder and together. For example, a travel site will coordinate your plans online on your computer and then automatically trigger the e-mail software on your PC to notify friends and family of the upcoming trip. More complex software will also work together with web sites to bring services that go far beyond our current shopping, electronic calendars, or travel arrangements. Such sites will help run companies, home office, and personal finance.

Information on the Web, which is becoming much more accessible by cell phones and handhelds, will be available anywhere and everywhere. In order to contact you, Web sites will now call your phone or page you. You will be able to use your cell phone as a remote control to access your PC. For instance, while you are away from home, you will be able to listen to your own music stored on your home PC on another computer. The Net’s connections will no longer go from just PC’s to servers, but every which way. The resulting possibilities from these types of connections are endless.

The next wave of the Net will also cost more. All the things we’ve been getting for free won’t be that way for much longer. As the Net gets bigger, Internet companies will look at the early days of the television as a business model. TV started out free. Once cable and satellite TV services came around, the model evolved into several layers. Free TV still exists, but now you can pay to get a bigger selection of channels, or you can pay more to get special packages such as HBO or pay-per-view sporting events.

As MP3 services become increasingly popular, many believe that they will carve out layers like the TV industry has done. Possibly they will create a free layer where you can get free music from lesser-known artists, up to a premium layer for immediate releases from superstars. It might get disorderly for a while as companies test how much people are willing to pay. But nearly everyone in the industry agrees that it will create a healthier Internet and business experience.

Also, lots of companies will jump on to the trend to make better computer products. Computer-game maker Electronic Arts is the first company to test the capabilities of the new connectivity. Its new game, Majestic, is tagged “the game that plays you.” Instead of being something that you play on the PC, this mystery game leaves clues and sucks you into situations by contacting you every which way – e-mail, instant message, faxes and even phone calls. Every communication device becomes part of the game. Says Electronic Arts’ Joe Keene, “It will invade your life.” Much as the Internet soon will.

I chose this article because of the economic significance the Internet will have on the future of the world’s economy. The Internet was a large reason for the boost of the United States’ economy in the last decade, and there is no reason to think that an improvement in the Internet won’t help the economy grow on an even larger scale.

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Darwin, Descent of Man

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Darwin, Descent of Man

In the third chapter, Charles Darwin talks about the differences between lower animals and human beings, who have mental powers. According to him, there is a huge difference between savages, which are known to be lowly, as well as apes that belong to a high class. The latter and the former, both exhibit certain common traits and characteristics. They include; imagination, memory, emotions, imitation, curiosity, reason as well as attention. Apart from these, humans are different and unique because they have the ability of communicating through languages, are self conscious, superstitious and they also believe in God.

The writings provided by Darwin are suggest that he was engaged in finding out about the origin of species, especially that of human beings. This is the reason why he came up with the book ‘Descent of Man’ in order to let everyone know about his findings. The major themes, which Darwin has made known include; mental powers, development of man, race and sexual selection. One is aware that in this particular reading, Darwin wanted to ensure that the moral power of human beings is evident. Furthermore, Darwin came up with the theory of the evolution of human beings in the 1800’s. During that time, most assumptions were often ignored, but not that of Darwin. This is the reason why Darwin is acclaimed as well as praised for his argument concerning the reason, which leads to the existence of human beings. He is a great and admirable originator, who deserves to be recognized. Indeed, ‘Descent of Man’ is a great asset to the world in gaining knowledge concerning human being existence theories.

Work Cited

Janet Browne, Charles Darwin: The Power of Place. New York: Knopf, 2002. Print.

Moore, James. & Desmond, Adrian. “Introduction”, in The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex, London: Penguin Classics, 2004. Print.

Net Privacy

Net Privacy

The internet has brought mixed blessings to the people who use it. It is a fantastic information source but the relative lack of privacy has brought forth a major problem. Anyone with even little hacking knowledge can track every move that you make while using internet services and/or view private or confidential information. It is now possible for some internet sites can actually find information such as e-mail addresses or the name of the person/people viewing the site without authorisation. This problem can affect everyone who uses any internet services and ultimately can lead to very confidential information(such as credit card numbers) getting into the hands of criminals.

Internet services and facilities are now used and provided by many companies and individuals worldwide. Each web site that is visited could have the capability of finding out your name and/or e-mail address and sending junk e-mail or cataloguing this information and then selling it to other companies. The ISP that you connect to the internet also has a record of every bit of information you upload or download, and must keep records for official purposes. Any sites that ask for your credit card number for “pay by use” or restricted services could, in fact, sell or use such information for illegal purposes such as fraud.

The actual hardware requirements for using the internet are minimal, only an internet service provider(a company that allows a connection to the internet), modem(to send and receive data transmissions through a phone line), phone line(to dial up the I.S.P,) and a reasonably fast computer(to run the hardware and software) are needed to get onto the internet. This allows almost anyone with a computer to access the internet. Software is needed to browse or view the internet is a browser(such as Netscape Navigator, MS Internet Explorer) and for e-mail services, programs such as Eudora, Netscape Navigator or MS Internet Explorer are needed to send or receive e-mail.

Nearly everyone will at some stage in their lives use the Internet. Very minimal skills are needed to use the Internet, and it allows people to access an immense amount of information at the touch of a button. All a person with a little hacking knowledge needs to do to get such information is to use a Trojan horse type program and he or she can follow you around and view the information you are uploading or downloading.

The fact that there is minimal internet privacy has led to people becoming weary of what they actually do on the internet. The people that actually provide the Internet services to uses, ISP’s, keep records for up to two months on all user data transactions. This means that someone could possibly get confidential information such as a credit card number and sell the information or use it themselves for purchasing goods or services. This has raised some concern and there have been propositions made in many governments worldwide to ensure that acts such as these are prevented from happening, but, anyone who has access to the actual server could find such information. This practice, however, could never be totally eradicated as there are already statutes in place that demand these records to be kept.

Another factor in this privacy issue are the “cookies” sent to you when viewing certain web sites. A cookie is a piece of information that is sent to you by a web site and in return, it takes a piece of information from the user. People can actually stop “cookies” from being received but it prevents vital information from being sent to them. Some times, all the cookie does is record, on the users computer, without consent, information such as the number of times that the site has been accessed by the user. More sophisticated versions can access information from the user such as e-mail addresses or the real name of the user. Such information should not be allowed to be accessed without consent and such practices should be stopped. Finally, something is being done about the practice of sending “cookies” to receive personal information such as the real name and e-mail addresses being sold to companies for the us of sending junk mail. In a recent law case in America, has filed a !

lawsuit against a company that sent him junk mail by e-mail by using “cookies” to get his information. A Virginia resident has filed suit in state court against US News & World Report, challenging the right of the magazine to sell or rent his name to another publication without his express written consent. Ram Avrahami claims that USN&WR has benefited commercially from his name, thus violating the Virginia Code which protects every person from having his/her name being used for commercial purpose without consent. The outcome of this case could set the precedent* for any such future claims and invite class actions against many companies that use the same practices.

E-mail viewing without consent is another occurrence of privacy infringement that has led to actual court cases being held to sue people and organisations. The “screening” of e-mail was a large problem before the advent of laws that prevented this from occurring. It was found that one ISP administrator in the United States of America would “get his kicks” out of reading the e-mail sent and received by users of the ISP. His unlawful actions set another precedent and since then this problem, although not altogether gone, has been greatly reduced.

A new method of gaining information used by some high level technology sites rely on the ISP of the user accessing their site. The site sends a signal to the ISP which returns information such as the country the user is from, the E-mail address of the user and in certain cases the address of the user. This information is freely available from the ISP with the right technology and allows web sites to gain information that it could rent or sell to other companies to sent traditional (snail mail) Junk Mail to the user.

With the release of Microsoft’s Windows 97®, a new era of unauthorised data retrieval has arisen. When a user with Windows 97® logs onto The Microsoft Network® the user’s computer sends information on all software actually on the user’s computer and if it has been registered with the company or not. A Microsoft® spokesperson said that it was “a bid to stop increasing software piracy”. This step really forces people to send in registration forms for any software that they own as Microsoft® can sue people who use the service without having registered products. It is a problem because many people who do by the product and not pirate it, do send in registration forms because they do not want their information used for the purpose of sending junk mail to them. It should be up to the user whether they want the registration forms sent in, not the software company’s.

The cost to many businesses that do not infringe the privacy of individuals is quite great. Many sites providing “pay for use” by credit cards services are avoided because there aren’t stricter privacy regulations. Although secure links with high level cryptography techniques have been created for “pay for use” services, there are still doubts in the minds of many people of the authenticity of such services. The benefits that increased privacy would clearly make it the only option for the internet. Increased use of credit card services and a wider band of people would be willing to visit sites and enter confidential information without any fear of misuse. It must be the future of the Internet.

Computer Privacy is a major issue and it does effect anyone who uses any internet service. Something must be done to stop the crimes committed against the privacy of people and people should be allowed to control their personal or confidential information, whether they want it freely available or not. Only through consumer pressure will the internet become more secure as has happened in America. Already people can join up to ISP’s with totally secure services with total anonymity. This must be the future of the internet.

Bibliography:

http://www.epic.org/privacy/junk_mail/

http://www.203.232.1.23/~org/~itop/priv.html

Dark Knight Movie Dialogue Analysis

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Dark Knight Movie Dialogue Analysis

Introduction

When conducting a film or movie dialogue analysis such as the Dark Knight’s, the most important thing is to evaluate the plot, the thought of the director of the movie, characters, and the general setting of the movie, in this case the Dark Knight. Fine considerations will be considered to the theme in the movie as well as the plot (Bale scene 2).

The way that the director of the move interprets the movie is to determine the conflict existing in the plot, the main concern being addressed, the setting, and the character does not follow international literal standards. However, the structure of analysis the director used is more elaborate based on the setting of the film. The film was acted based on a theme intended to unify the mindset of the audience thus, the decision the employ the structure of the plot. This defines the entire framework of the film. The director of the movie was able to divide the movie into three plots so that he could be able to articulate the attention of the audience as well as express fully information concerning the themes. I consider what the director used to design the plot of the movie as one of the best approaches used in contemporary world.

Not forgetting the methodology that the film used, the director of the movie included several theories to engulf the theme and the character plots. The film used mainstream conceptualization of information about the current crisis or problems in the world to ascertain the conclusion. The end effect of the film left the audience in suspense to knowing the step to take; either to buy the next episode or to attend the movie in a theater. The audience also anticipated much from the director hence the deployment of various literal features in the movie.

The movie used the characters to support general analysis as well the general depictions of the theme. The move argues that the vigilant justice, deems to be illegal and is also sometimes important to deal with criminal acts via extraordinary means. The unique concept that the movie shows if what many people like of the Dark Knight. Such extraordinary concepts deployed are terrorism and other violence activities that is evident in today’s society. For example, the Jokers in the movie act randomly in violence forms with less rational other than terror actions or other examples such as vigilant crimes. The Dark Knight depicts that actions like that are used to attain a political purpose; to disrupt and to create fear to the social setting.

The movie tries to compare itself with other movies such as the Spiderman whereby the character of the movie tries to live a normal life. The same case is that of Dark Knight whereby a character such as Wayne is able to shows the general public via his actions that living a normal life out of problems is a basic concept in the health and crime free living of the world. This is one of the character approaches that I like of the movie among the others. The theme of vigilant justice that the movie indicates informs that audience that any action that an individual takes into crime actions is not allowed in the social setting hence a fearful idea that ought to be addressed in contemporary movies like the Dark Knight (Bale scene 1).

Much can be said about what the characters of the movie try to inform the audience but the general information that comes out from the movie is the ideal information on crime. Robber and theft is addressed by character support but the ideal responsibility that the character should mean is not addressed in the film. The responsibility should come with other components such as how the film should offer solutions to the public on how to curb such crimes and vigilant threats like terrorism. Lack of these facts the movie failed to address is one of the things that the makes Dark knight a far-reaching movie that most people especially the aged do not see it. In conclusion, failure of the movie to offer solutions to the audience is also one the things that I dislike about the film. Since all contemporary films should offer remedies of the negative behaviors that they intend or they have shown hence the reason why various contemporary movies are in series; one episode shows the problem while the other shows the solutions.

The characters who are mandated to control general overview of theme in the movie are Joker and Bent. After the iconic scene that appeared in the warehouse whereby the firearms are seen as relief to the explosion. The literal aspect that the movie tries to depict in this case if to show how even the criminals are used as tools to signify the most important aspects about the world crime levels. The criminals scene used in the Dark Knight identifies the role that every person in the world should deploy to ensure safe and secure environment. What a like of the symbolic aspects of the movie is that it is able to address the negative and positive side of the criminals. This part of the movie as designed by the director of Dark Knight was to inform the general audience that even the worst people we consider in the world have a positive role they can play.

The movie generally used symbolic functions to express the other side of the world the most people do not expect and this is what I like of the movie among other issues. Nothing comes without a fall and the general understanding of the movie is the most significant part of the Dark knight. All the information that the director shows via the movie is very important, but the movie failed to address this. The concept of character analysis is one of the concept that the movie failed to address hence a dislike that the movie failed to bring close to the eyes of the audience. Failure to inform the audience about the information needed is a problem the movie failed to address hence digresses on my side.

The other aspect about the movie that is worth mentioning is the thoughts that Dark Knight Director opted to address. This comes with two simple questions one of them is “do the murders act crime and terrorism”. This is one of the loopholes that the film failed to fill. The thoughts brought about in the movie is what I dislike because the characters failed to address in-depth knowledge of current issues addressing the world. The thoughts they have tried to show are very simple and shallow hence cannot define other upcoming issue in the current world. The movie failed to address motives of actions to issues like philosophy in this case religion.

The determinant space that the film employed is urban, but the film is not a gangster film. The ethics and style of the movie is one of the characteristics that the movie. The movie used the urban setting to address the problems that face urban cities and towns today; however, the most disliking part of the movie is that it did not address rural setting. This is an issue that movies should address in the contemporary setting.

Conclusion

Dark Knight is a movie that brought on board all the stylistic and literal aspects expected of modern movies but failed to address other small details such as character analysis and theme definition. Generally in like the movie in terms of character, plot, thoughts and setting.

Works Cited

Dark Knight . Dir. Christopher Nolan. Perf. Christian Bale. 2008.

Net Present Value (NPV) Versus Internal Rate of Return (IRR)

Net Present Value (NPV) Versus Internal Rate of Return (IRR)

Contents

TOC o “1-3″ h z u The NPV approach to valuation is superior to the IRR approach. Suggest how you would approach getting buy-in from senior management. PAGEREF _Toc377396170 h 1Analyze the variation in the results of net present value and the internal rate of return for use in evaluating a combination of projects or portfolio of projects and how the variations should impact decision making. PAGEREF _Toc377396171 h 1Investments in Global Markets” Please respond to the following: (use article below) •From the e-Activity, analyze the factors that should be considered in determining the required rate of return for evaluating projects, in global markets and how this impacts decision making. PAGEREF _Toc377396172 h 3As CFO, discuss how you would defend the difference in the required rate of return for your company on similar projects in the Brazil and India PAGEREF _Toc377396173 h 4

The NPV approach to valuation is superior to the IRR approach. Suggest how you would approach getting buy-in from senior management.Net present value is equal to the sum of the present value of all cash flows associated with a project. The one outstanding feature of NPV is that it steadily decreases as the discount rate increases. Internal rate of return is the discount rate that equates the present value of cash inflows with the present value of cash outflows on investment. It is the rate of discount where the net present value is equal to zero (Siegel, 2008).

NPV is superior to IRR because it makes it easy to compare different projects. There is also the chance that consecutive projects can have their NPVs can be added together. This ensures that poor projects with a negative NPV will not be accepted just because it is paired with a project with a positive NPV. IRR is not reliable because it is possible for one to obtain more than one solution for the same project, this means that a project can be accepted and rejected on different times under same conditions. IRR also overstates the desirability of short life projects over those that are longer. IRR also discriminates against projects that have large capital outlays especially if the projects being compared are mutually exclusive (Siegel, 2008).

Analyze the variation in the results of net present value and the internal rate of return for use in evaluating a combination of projects or portfolio of projects and how the variations should impact decision making.Suppose the cash flows of different time periods of a project are as follows and the cost capital r= 10%, then the NPV would be

Year Cash Flows

0 1000000

1 200000

2 200000

3 300000

4 300000

5 550000

NPV = -1000000 + 200000 +200000 + 300000 + 300000 + 550000

(1.1)0 (1.1)1 (1.1)2 (1.1)3 (1.1)4 (1.1)5

= -1000000 + 181818.182 +165289.256 + 225394.440 + 204904.037 + 341506.720

= 118912.643

Generally NPV is calculated by

= ∑ Ci – Bi

(1 +r)i

Decision rule is if NPV >0 the project is viable, accept project

NPV<0 the project is not viable, reject project

NPV =0 the other factors apart from NPV should be considered.

In our case accept the project.

IRR = r + PV1 [ (r1 +r2)/ (PV1 + PV2)]

Given the following figures,

PV1 = 10000, r1 = 10, r2 = 20, PV2 = 5000

IRR = 10 + 10,000 (10/15000) = 16.7

There should be a predetermined discount rate that is r*= 15

Decision rule is

IRR >r* then the project is viable and it should be accepted.

IRR<r* the project is not viable and should be rejected

IRR=r* analyze other factors apart from IRR

In our case accept the project.

Investments in Global Markets” Please respond to the following: (use article below)•From the e-Activity, analyze the factors that should be considered in determining the required rate of return for evaluating projects, in global markets and how this impacts decision making.When it comes to global markets, the factors that currently influence the determination of the required rate of return is the rate at which the market is currently growing at. The other factor is the future expectations of the market in its physical situation. When it comes to a company going international the question that most shareholders usually ask is what are the risks associated with such an investment? At what growth rate is it? In a nutshell they always want to know how stable a market is and when they will get their initial invested capital back.

When it comes to developing countries, the share holders always make the mistake of setting a higher international rate of investment return (Gregory, 2012). This is because they work under the assumption that developing countries are not stable enough and are more likely not to experience the always projected growth. Well contemporary studies are showing that is not true, this is because companies that invest in developing countries are more likely to experience increase in revenues and profits earned than those who invest in already developed countries.

The other factor considered is the weighted average cost of capital, most companies view that the risks in emerging global markets are higher and that the cost of capital will increase with increase in the risk of any specific market, this makes most firms to simply invest very little in the emerging markets and end up getting little revenue as well (Gregory 2012).

As CFO, discuss how you would defend the difference in the required rate of return for your company on similar projects in the Brazil and IndiaLet us assume that a company has invested in a developed country like the United Kingdom and decides to franchise in Brazil and in India as well. These two are developing countries that most probably do not have the many competing firms. This means that there is a chance of controlling a greater market share in the developing countries than it is possible in the mother country of the firm.

The difference in the required rate of return from a developed country to a developing country is 12 – 15%, this difference is brought on by the fact that the emerging markets offer a great potential of growth and much more is expected. This is as opposed to the developed markets that are already structured and any more investment in the firm leads to diseconomies of scale.

Due to fear of the risks involved investors set high investment hurdles in emerging markets as opposed to the established markets, this makes the investment to be minimal and so is the pay off. A decrease in the hurdles to as low as the ones placed in the mother country will increase the return earned from investment in countries like Brazil and India. This will open more and more opportunities for further investment that will lead to increase the revenue earned as there will be more opportunities to exploit.

References

Siegel, Joel, (2008), Financial Concepts and Tools for Managers, Delta Publishing Company

Gregory V. Milano and Jeffrey L. Routh – CFO.com | US February 15, 2012

Dark Ages

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Dark Ages

When the roman empire crumpled, Europe was besieged with war, famine, plague and persistence war that was merely interrupted with short periods of peace. This is said to have persisted for over 1000 years. The Roman Empire was under siege by thugs from the Northern European frontiers and this was rare since it had never been attacked. Slaves rose to enslave their own masters and the cities in Rome overflowed with blood of its own citizens (Gibbon 35). Friends became foes and the siege for Rome was perceived as a profit making undertaking and the need for power. Carolus and his rebel army was the pioneer for the war on Rome and in order to conquer the city they strangled it from outside and controlled the supply of its food (grains) and eventually the city began to die from within due to insufficient supply of food (YouTube, 2012).

There was intense starvation and death of people turning the initially powerful and glorious Roman empire into a city of hunger and corpses of the dead people. Buildings were burnt to the ground making the Roman citizens helpless as the great monuments of Rome were destroyed and the initial stones from the ruins of the buildings were used to make other forms of shelter. The dark ages was first used by scholars by comparing it to the classical periods in which it was stated that the classical period was better, brilliant and better unlike the time during the fall of Rome in which the people’s lives were destitute and dark, unimaginable. It is mentioned that during the dark ages, the emperor at the time was Jesus Christ. There seems to be continued allusion to religion, specifically Christianity as the hope for the hopeless during the dark ages.

Religion is presented as a core facet that could have played an integral role in the fall of the Roman Empire. Christianity offered some source of peace and given that during the dark ages people were angered, grieved and disillusioned, it is stated that Christianity was the only hope for most people during the dark ages (Durant 443) Irrespective of these assertions, the early Christians were faced with persecutions as most of them were killed. Columbus was also a Christian and he understood that through having more people converted as he attributed his success as an emperor and this implied that Nazi’s success in his leadership had to be endorsed by resilience. Columbus’ brutality was stated to be legendary and for many centuries after the fall of the Rome the Western Europe remained in thick shadow of chaos and death of people.

During these dark ages, it was assumed that almost half of the population perished making it completely difficult to bury them. A notable aspect in the videos is when Justinian (the emperor of Eastern Roman Empire or the Byzantine Empire) was trying to reunite the Old Roman Empire. The population of Italy then (who had now been successfully intermingled with Germanics for about 100 years), saw the Byzantines as invading Greek-speaking conquerors but not as well-intentioned kinsmen (Durant 446). This was ironic since the emperor intended to unite them and create cohesion among people through having them interact freely and without any form of feat of attacks. In spite of these assertions the Western Europe part was divided by Barbarians and this made it to remain in darkness, hunger and lack of peace due to continued fights.

It is imperative to note that the attacks to the Roman empire that resulted in the dark age were engineered by the barbarian soldiers who by definition, are an illiterate group of warriors, directed by tribal chiefs or warlords, whose main intention is to take from others what they can, just as it was the case during the initial attack to the Roman empire. War, plunder, and rapine were their modes, primarily out of need (and often out of desperation). However, it is stated that in repeated historic examples when the barbarians invade and conquer rich, agricultural and urbanized lands, it scarcely takes one generation for the barbarians to adopt the culture of the conquered. This was the case with these attackers who are said to have wanted to be ‘Romans’ themselves (Gibbon 39).

One of the great surprises the video sets the student up for is the truth about Charlemagne’s rise to power during the 8th Century. The movie presents his rise as a singular accomplishment, hinting that he may have killed or employed someone else to kill his brother, Carloman II in order to consolidate power. In fact, Durant notes, his predecessors, Pepin I and Pepin III laid the political groundwork Charles built upon (461), and speculation about Carloman’s death is meaningless without documentation. Pepin I and Pepin III were the great leaders who unified Gaul, establishing France as a kingdom to be reckoned among the powers of the time (461).

Gibbon pays special attention to Pepin I as having taken the blessing of the Church in his coronation as king of the Franks after the fashion of the Old Testament kings of Israel, establishing his state as submissive to the Roman Pope (23). However, it was especially Pepin III who had the insight that the Church would be a useful ally in ruling the newly unified people (Durant 461). This crafty pose put the influence of the Church behind the military and political advances of the later Carolingians, a position Charlemagne was especially successful in using to his advantage (467).

None of this, however, detracts from Charlemagne’s greatness. His conquests in the name of Christianity unified central Europe from Germany to Italy for the first time in hundreds of years. Mayr-Harting suggests that Charlemagne’s imperialist campaigns were as likely conducted on the basis of what today we might call homeland security, as protecting one’s allies may involve conquering their enemies (1113 – 4). Another compelling reason for Charlemagne’s European campaigns had to do with access to valuable trade, especially the wine trade of the Rhine, which was very profitable, yet required expansive conquest for its protection from the Saxons (1114 – 5). As The Dark Ages video celebrates and Airlie confirms, Charlemagne engineered military success with craft, ruthlessness, and skill (94). While he often cited his mission as one of spreading Christianity, the brutality of his treatment of captives argues for a measure of disbelief on that issue.

For instance, slaughtering 4500 captives in the name of Christ (Mayr-Harting 1116) might not convince anyone to believe in the mercy of the Christian God, but it could very well convince people that they should do whatever such a vicious conqueror instructed. But, setting aside his motives and methods in warfare, his success remains indisputable, and that success led, eventually to his crowning as Emperor of Rome on Christmas Day, 800 (Durant 469, Mayr-Harting 1121, Gibbon 33). That the details of that coronation remain unclear (Durant 469), and the motives of both Pope Leo III and Charlemagne himself seem divergent (Mayr-Harting 1123), there is little argument that it was effectively the beginning of Holy Roman Empire (1132).

Charlemagne’s greatness extends beyond his coronation, though, into the arena of domestic programs that show a remarkable degree of character for such a merciless oppressor (Gibbon 34). Even Gibbon, whose regard for Charlemagne is often apparently reserved, acknowledges Charlemagne’s aspiration to develop schools and generalize education in his empire worthy of praise. He says of this noble motive: “the curiosity of the human mind must ultimately tend to its improvement, and the encouragement of learning reflects the purest and most pleasing luster on the character of Charlemagne” (36). Even so, his laws and martial attentiveness leave room for criticism, the laws, if noble and complex, being strung together rather than systematic (35), and the military successes were at the same time inconsistent with any claim to Christian loyalty and marred by unfortunate losses (37).

Works Cited

Airlie, Stuart. “Narratives of Triumph and Rituals of Submission: Charlemagne’s

Mastering of Bavaria.” Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 6.9 (1999):

93 – 119. JSTOR. Web. 4 Dec 2012.

Durant, Will. The Story of Civilization (Vol. 4). New York: Simon and Schuster, 1950.

Print.

Gibbon, Edward. The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (Vol. 3). New York:

Random House, n.d. Print.

Mayr-Harting, Henry. “Charlemagne, the Saxons, and the Imperial Coronation of 800.”

English Historical Review 111.444 (1996): 1113 – 1133. JSTOR. Web.

4 Dec 2012.

Net Neutrality

Net Neutrality

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Net neutrality refers to the standard that governments and internet service providers ought to employ to treat the entire data in the internet equally without being selective or charging in a different way by user, content, site, platform, application, type of attached equipment, and methods of communication. In simple terms, it is the opinion that all internet traffic be cared for equally. This permits those on the internet to simply communicate and carry out business with no intrusion from the third party. It is very much different from closed internet where already well-known companies or governments favor particular users. Closed internet might have restrictions on the access of essential web services or even filter out web contents. However, this paper explains more about net neutrality according to the extensive debate that went on particularly in the United States about whether this neutrality should be required by law (Cheng,2011,Pil and Kim,2010,Thierer,2012 ).

As the debate about the issue continues, advocates of net neutrality have gone ahead to raise concerns about the capability of broadband providers to make use of their last mile infrastructure to obstruct internet applications and the contents such as websites, services, and protocols. They also raised anxieties whether the same providers will even block out other competitors. Nevertheless, opponents of net neutrality maintain that telecom companies are up to impose a tiered service model for the purpose of controlling the pipeline and by this means do away with competition, create false shortage, and force subscribers to buy their or else uncompetitive services. Many, including the founder of internet, Vinton cerf and a core- inventer of internet protocol believe net neutrality as primarily important as a protection of existing freedoms. The web creator, Tim Berners-Lee and many others have also spoken positively concerning net neutrality (Barley, 2013 and Marsden, 2010).

The idea of ‘net neutrality’ is that each website that is accessed through an ISP, such as Verizon Wireless or Comcast acquires identical bandwidth and speed. On the other hand, the court ruled that ISPs could not be forced on issues of net neutrality. In reality, they will at present have a motivation to charge higher fees to websites looking to have quicker access and content delivery. Services such as Netflix and Hulu would be forced to pay a premium, since they cannot pay for the slow streaming of their content. Furthermore, ISPs can randomly choose to slow down the velocity of any website they decide, such as that of contestant, or less than admiring news outlets (Barley,2013 and Marsden,2010).

As far as the digital world is concerned, the ruling is a blow to internet free will. There will be also higher cost of premium being passed back to digital advertisers. It also means that service providers like Hulu will also increase their rates of charges for advertising on its network as it is currently paying higher fee to ensure high speed access of content. The popular subscription based services could pass on that the additional bandwidth charge onto its end customers, although social media platforms would have no option but to pass the charge on to advertisers, given that its consumers get them for free. This implies higher charges for social media show ads and promotional campaigns. The ruling will also make it hard for brands to force traffic to their personal website. A big company similar to, say Coca-Cola, can have enough money to pay for simple way in to its Journey website, which is filled with its own content. In order for smaller brands to obtain similar type of bandwidth, it would be a climbing task to acquire that sort of marketing budget accepted (Marsden,2010,Cheng et al.,2012,Powell and Cooper,2011).

The experience of watching video online could also become a hit soon as either flawlessly smooths movies on Netflix or frozen and frustrating videos from the site of smaller firms which cannot afford to pay extra fee. This means that the reason has nothing to do with superiority in technologies used by these companies but has something to do with money. It therefore depends on how much companies are willing to pay to move their content on to fast internet lanes.The proposal for new set of network neutrality rules likewise threatens to undermine the FCC’s long held attitude of ensuring equivalent access to all contents. It would be a key success for the network providers, which pays out large sums of money a year to sustain and upgrade their networks. The providers argue that companies that consume the most bandwidth typically with video streams ought to pay additional for such privilege(Powell and Cooper,2011,Crocioni,2011).

The most affected in this ruling are the digital marketers as digital advertisers have to bear the high cost of bandwidth passed to them. Others include service providers like Hulu, Netflix, and organizations like yahoo, NBC, LnkedIn which all have to pay for the additional cost of bandwidth. The social media and content websites are also affected since it will be very difficult for them to enter the same play field except if they are ready to pay subscription fee. Other proponents group like consumer advocates, human rights organizations, online companies, technology companies, Vonage, eBay, Amazon, InternetActiceCorp(IAC), Microsoft, along with other companies and internet users that had taken a stance in support of network neutrality are also likely to be affected either directly or indirectly(Crocioni,2011,Varnelis,2012,Caves,2012).

Then there is also the merger between Comcast and the Time warner which is too being questioned by Connecticut Senetor, Richard Blumenthal. The Comcast and Time Warner cable execs is questioned how their merger would affect regional sports programming. But they waved it off as a stupid question. Comcast and TWC, however, in their evidence before the senator said there ought to be no worry about the union that affects regional sports channels since Comcast and TWC do not at present have any overlap with these channels. Needless to say, this is not about overlap but about utilizing a mixture of assets from both Comcast and TWC to compel customers off of the only genuine remaining competition in the pay TV market, that is, satellite service from direct TV and Dish. The two largest players in local sports coverage are Comcast, via its various Comcast SportsNet contributions, and FOX, which controls large number of local sports channels. These regional channels frequently carry the greater part of games in markets with several sports teams for the whole thing apart from NFL that is considered available via a local broadcast TV station (Marsden, 2014, Owens, 2013 and Caves, 2012).

Nonetheless, sports offering for both FX and Comcast differ in their availability to people across several pay TV platforms. FOX is a content company that wants its shows seen by as many people as possible. Only a handful of FOX sports stations are not available to both Direct TV and Dish subscribers in their area across the whole list. FOX has at least some agreements with Direct TV in all of its markets totaling to its terrestrial cable operators which is not true for the case of Comcast. Comcast start at offering satellite providers access to a number of its popular sports offerings out of anxiety that it will drop its monopoly on the local pay TV business. Time warners cable (TWC), Comcast’s merger partner is trying to copy its larger companion’s strong monopolistic position with SportsNet L.A that is jointly owned by Dodgers and TWC. Since TWC is not willing to move on the price tag for access to the Dodgers who at present have the power of doing fine so far this period, Considerably lager percentage of people in L.A. have no way of watching the majority of Dodgers game(Marsden,2014,Owens,2013 and Springer,2014).

The merger between Comcast and Time warner Cable only gives the joint company extra power in bargaining with local sports teams. This situation is considered true particularly with the anticipated deal with charter that would provide a combined Comcast/TWC the additional neighboring coverage in L.A. and much of the East Cost. The Mets games in NYC are shown on SNY which is jointly owned by TWC and Comcast team. In this state of combination, the cable companies would own one third of the nation. The station is by now out of access by Dish customers in the city. There is nothing to stop Comcast, particularly when it becomes the leading cable and broadband provider in NYC to use the ownership chance in raising the price to be charged to direct TV. This will consequently compel Satellite Company to either pass the cost on or drop the station. In L.A, the addition of new areas of the city by Comcast would bring Dodgers games to several people, though would also imply that the company has less reason to share with Direct TV or dish. Comcast has not at all done anything to demonstrate its interest in making sports content accessible to the wider market .Even its online Olympics coverage was only accessible to pay-TV subscribers eager to pay for service tiers that comprised every NBC news and sports channel. With more money behind it, the bigger Comcast will only carry on to influence restricted regional sports deals for the purpose of keeping subscribers from cutting the cord and to convince sports fans to stay away from satellite(Sharffer and Jordan 2010,Dumas,2012,Springer,2014).

Comcast’s billions of dollars achievement of Time Warner Cable (TWC) is anticipated to be carefully examined by the section of justice and Federal Communications Commission (FCC), and it could be fruitless in case the agencies make a decision that the merger would considerably lessen competition and hurt consumers. Still, in a case where Comcast wins agreement, the merger might need consumer guard requirements that would make it difficult for Comcast to exercise its increased size in conducts that make the TV and Internet markets less spirited. Comcast said it anticipates regulatory assessment to take nine to twelve months. At present, they are looking at what authority the department of justice and FCC may employ to obstruct or change the projected achievement. Telecom specialist Harold Feld, senior VP of consumer advocacy group Public Knowledge, clarified that the department of justice(DOJ) and FCC each have power here, but the procedures they employ are rather different (Sharffer and Jordan 2010,Dumas,2012).

The former FCC official advises overcome of “anti-consumer” Comcast/TWC merger where he says that the department of justice does this under antitrust. He says that this case has to go to the federal court to block the deal, and they have the burden of evidence under a customary antitrust investigation. The former official also says that the merger would have to demonstrate that there is a considerable probability that the transaction would lessen competition in some appropriate market. In this case, he adds that the department of justice would have to prove its case by prevalence proof(Sharffer and Jordan 2010, Cooper,2013).

The FCC’s power comes from the reality that Time Warner Cable would have to move Cable Television Relay Service licenses and telephone service licenses to Comcast. The FCC is seen to be a bit different since it is in fact the judge. This means that FCC as a commission has to decide whether the move of the licenses serves the community interest. The weight is on the applicants to demonstrate the existence of enough the public interest gains to counterbalance any possible problems to the public concern (Sharffer and Jordan 2010,Gainer et al., 2013).

The FCC has the option of approving the acquisition absolute or endorses it with conditions. If Comcast have the same opinion to the conditions, then the deal will sail on very well. In case the FCC needs to challenge, it would not straight away refuse the merger. The FCC would announce concerning questions of material fact, questions we cannot respond from the present condition of the documentation on whether the merger serves public interest. Comcast has positioned its focus on the multichannel video programming distribution (MVPD) market, claiming that the attainment of TWC would bring Comcast from 22 million to 30 million subscribers, or less than 30 percent of the countrywide total. Comcast also offered to separate itself from three million subscribers in an offer to get under 30 percent and possibly calm regulators (Yoo and Lee,2014, Sharffer and Jordan 2010).

Moreover, Comcast has pointed out that it does not contend alongside Time Warner Cable in any individual cities or towns. That information is descriptive of how small competitions survive in the cable market, as the vendors have successfully separated up regions to the point where every consumer have little choice. To Comcast’s antitrust lawyers, it is positive in the sense that the merger will not lessen the number of cable options clients have. Comcast’s market description is not the only one that will be proposed. Consumer support group Free Press maintain that the merger would provide Comcast control over the majority of US triple play market for video, voice, and Internet service. The group says that the merger in addition will give extraordinary market influence over consumers and an extraordinary capability to make use of its influence over any channels or businesses that desire to get to Comcast’s customers(Walters,2011,Manne 2014 , Chan-Climsted ang Guo,2011).

In listing all the ways the merger with Time Warner is pro-consumer, Comcast states that the highly spirited US Internet market will only become improved. Less than 30 percent of residential families, Comcast would have improved discussing control in a diversity of markets, which it could possibly employ to hurt contestants and its own clients. Comcast would also have extra room to grow as proprietor of TWC. The CableTV.com, which tracks accessibility of cable services, gave details that Comcast’s shared footprint with Time Warner Cable would be 214 million Americans, or about two-thirds of the US inhabitants, up from 129 million for Comcast today. Not all of those people subscribe to Comcast, particularly in places that have more than one cable company or a different player like Verizon FiOS, although the number give details of how large Comcast’s potential can be seen betterStuke and Grunes, 2014, Shaffer and Jordan, 2013).

Comcast’s enlarged size would craft it simpler to insist on payments in the market from Internet bandwidth providers such as Cogent or Level 3, as an alternative of proceeding with the exchange traffic for free of charge as has been the custom. Comcast could also use better negotiating influence to acquire elevated payments from other phone providers for the capability to make calls to Comcast customers (Bonna, 2014).

Some of the supporters of this merger comprise Comcast and Time Warner themselves as they say that they have willingly shed subscribers to keep their size at spirited level. In addition, they said that internet access regulations will keep them from discriminating against video competitors online such as You Tube or Netflix. Another supporter of the merger among others is the Silico Valley CEO who says that the merger will be good for consumers since many of them will at present start to receive quicker broadband internet services. He also added that Comcast is the industry leader in broadband technology known as DOCSIS 3.0 that provides almost all of its customer’s access to networks competent of 100 Mbps or more which greatly exceeds TWC top speeds today. Silico also says that the merger will help accelerate the US leadership which is already ahead of Europe since it has faster speeds and is one of the only two countries with fully developed broadband technologies. He added that Comcast’s deal with TWC will also indicate an improved video understanding for more Americans and that Customers will see no decrease in competition while gaining quicker Internet speeds and more diverse programming choices as Comcast and TWC operate in different communities. Last but not least, Comcast’s acquisition of TWC will be a net plus for network neutrality which is one of the top main concerns of consumer supporters. This means that consumer supporters will be one of the supporters of the merger to a certain level(Sharffer and Jordan 2010, Gilroy,2012, Waternam and Choi , 2012).

Senetor Al Franken, is one of those against the merger for his vocal criticism. He is seen as the loudest opponent of Comcast’s bid for Time Warner, evidenced by his letter to the trade group Computer and communications industry Associations. In this letter, he asked for the group’s view on the 445 billion mergers. He claims that Comcast will wind up with 40% of the broadband internet market if this is approved. The senator said that this power is too much for a single company which according to him could act as a powerful gatekeeper for internet content and services in the US homes. Other opponents among others include service providers like Netflix which reported through its executives that it is opposed to the merger, arguing that consumers would be harmed in case comcast is left to control more than 40% of broadband internet subscriptions and 30% of the cable subscriptions. This shows just a few highlights of the existing opponents and supporters of the merger(Curtin 2010 and Wallsten, 2010).

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