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Deforestation Concepts and Descriptions

Deforestation

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Assignment 1: Literature Review

Deforestation

Concepts and Descriptions

Conceptually, deforestation is the is the removal of tree stands, which converts the land into other land uses or results into a bareness; for example, clearing of forestland to ranches, farms, or urban use (Durham & Painter, 1998). Similarly, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) considers deforestation as a massive clearing of the Earth’s forest, which often results to degradation and reduction of the quality of land. UNDP has reiterated that the current rate of global deforestation is alarming and calls for immediate and rigorous intervention. It warns that if no proper measure is put in place, the word risks losing its forest endowments in just a hundred years to come. Also, a report by Cardenas (2008), adds that the world is not just losing the forest cover, but a complex mixture of natural resources including the biodiversity, land productivity are subsequently deteriorating.

Global deforestation mainly affects the world’s temperate and tropical rainforest, which form the highest percentage of forest cover. The rate and extent of forest loss have proved beyond any reasonable doubt to be an urgent environmental problem. In this regard, the issue jeopardizes people’s livelihoods, intensifies global warming, and threatens the world’s plant and animal species (Lambin & Geist, 2006). Further, Andersen reports that, millions of the world population has a direct reliance on forest resources through small-scale agriculture, harvesting forest products, hunting, and gathering. Moreover, deforestation poses severe social problems, which sometimes results to violent conflicts as the different parties fight to tap the scarce resources.

Forest transformation and conversion are majorly due to human actions in relation to direct or indirect utilization, which over the years have continued to be profound (Boahene, 1998). Tress are cleared, fragmented, or converted to agricultural lands, infrastructure, and human settlements. Originally, as Lambin and Geist (2006) put it, more than half the land of United States, nearly all of Europe, three-quarters of Canada, and vast lands of the world were under forest. However, the coverage has been removed to a large extent by wood fuel extractions, industrial usage, and farming.

Quantitative and Qualitative Data on Forest and Deforestation

The Earth’s total area covered by the forest is over four billion hectares, which quantitatively gives an average per capita of 0.6 hectares (Vajpeyi, 2001). Though, only five countries in the world are rich in forest cover, which include Canada, Brazil, the Russian Federation, China, and United States of America. Their areas under the forest are more than half of the territories; however, the vastness in forest is because the countries have developed appropriate policies and laws to monitor forest product utilization (Lambin & Geist, 2006). Moreover, almost ten countries in the world lack areas covered by forest while additional 54 countries have less than 10% land covered (Margulis, 2004).

More than one and a half of the world forests are gone. Unfortunately, every year, additional 16 million hectares are lost, which worsen the natural state of the environment. UNDP estimates that just about 22% of the Earth’s old growth remains, especially the boreal forest of Canada and Alaska, boreal forest in Russia, the Guyana Shield, and the Amazon rainforest in the Northwest Basin. However, the anthropological influence in forest cover continues to expand and accelerate in the remaining undisturbed forest, which also result to declining quality of the forest remnants (Margulis, 2004).

Deforestation rate has shown signs of decreasing, nonetheless, still alarmingly high especially in Asia, Africa, and Latin America, which still rely on wood fuel as an energy source. Again, evidences show that, the tropical rainforest of South America and Africa are leading in the rates of deforestation (Lambin & Geist, 2006). According to Pearce (1994), agriculture was the main reason for deforestation in Brazil and Indonesia. Conversely, other uses or natural causes account for the loss, for example, in the 1990s, up to 13 million hectares of forest disappeared in the world due to non-agricultural factors. Also, since 2000, Australia has lost huge tracts of forest as a result of drought and forest fires (Costa & Pires, 2010).

Tropical deforestation is the most detrimental aspect of global change in environmental issues such as climate, hydrology, and global biogeochemical cycles (Boahene, 1998). Rainforest in the Amazon Basin is the largest single Tropical forest of the world, but sadly, the vast coverage in Brazil has the highest rate of forest loss of about 1.5-2.0 × 106 hectares per year (Costa & Pires, 2010).

Explicitly, according to Costa and Pires (2010), South America suffered the greatest net loss between the years of 2000 and 2010, by deforestation rate of 4.0 million hectares of cover lost every year. Africa followed closely with a rate of about 3.4 million hectares lost annually. In the same decade, Oceania had a net loss of 700000 ha every year, mainly because of the severe drought that struck Australia. On the other hand, in Central and North America, area covered by the forest in 2010 was estimated to be the same as in 2000. Fortunately, the forest cover in Europe expanded, though on a slower rate (700000 ha annually) in relation to 1990s (900000 ha annually). However, China experienced a net gain of greater than 2.2 million ha annually in the same period of 2000-2010. However, Southeast Asia and the Southern parts continued to register net losses in forest cover (Costa & Pires, 2010).

Causes of Deforestations

According to Kummer and Turner (1994), agriculture is the direct cause of deforestation, of which subsistence farming accounts for about 45% while commercial agriculture accounts for 32% of the global deforestation. Again, industrial logging for wood processing and as fuel energy is responsible for massive rate of deforestation (Sunderlin & Center for International Forestry Research, 1996). Globalization that leads to worldwide proliferations of ideas, commodities, capital, and labor coupled with the rise in urbanizations, especially in the developing countries has endangered the world forest cover. In Africa and Asia to be specific, the exacerbated rates of deforestation are due to overreliance on wood fuel as a source of household energy. Additionally, other natural causes such as drought, forest fires, pest, and diseases have also contributed to the loss of huge tracts of the Earth’s forest.

Effects of Deforestations

Deforestation destroys wildlife habitats, which leads to decline or extinction of the world’s biodiversity, for instance, about 137 species of animals, plants, and insects are lost in a single day because of rainforest deforestation; cumulatively, adding up to 50000 species per year. Additionally, soil loss through erosions and subsequent land degradations affects world food production (Vajpeyi, 2001).

Deforestation also causes an imbalance in the hydrological cycle due to increased moisture loss from bare soil surfaces. Sadly, deforestation is the main cause of climate change and global warming due to loss of carbon sequesters. Therefore, greenhouse gases, particularly Carbon dioxide accumulate in the atmosphere at high concentrations, making global warming inevitable. It is human beings who suffer the real repercussion as their livelihoods and welfare is tampered with. Furthermore, forest cover is a surrogate to economic value of a country, which when lost leads to economic losses (Costa & Pires, 2010).

In conclusion, forest offers invaluable economic services and direct marketable good and service to the various countries of the world. Deforestation is a worldwide issue that should be address at the country, regional, and global levels. Even though worldwide campaigns have been used to reduce the rates of forest loss, effort still needs to be put in place to avoid future impacts on human livelihoods, welfare, environment, and the global economy. Therefore, appropriate and effective mitigation measures must be put in place to curb unsustainable exploitation of forest resources, both at individual and industrial levels.

Assignment 2: White Paper

Deforestation and Mitigation

Executive Summary

Forests are very important to everyone. They directly or indirectly support millions of persons in the world and over 80% of the Earth’s biological diversity. Again, forests drive local and global, hydrological, and climatic cycles, therefore; they contribute to climate change when cut down at a rate exceeding their regeneration rates (Tucker & Townshend 2000). Furthermore, a lot of scientific studies assert that forest destructions and deforestations are the third most contributors to greenhouse gases that cause global warming and climate change. Also, there are proofs that deforestations contribute thrice the greenhouse gases released from global transport sector (Potter, 1999).

Forests are biological resources, which are very sensitive to unsustainable exploitations because if the rate of cutting down the stands exceed the rate of natural regeneration, then decline in forest cover results. In this regard, forest management and conservation become mandatory if humanity still wants to tap the values from the natural resources. Therefore, a workable idea is to conserve forest carefully by avoiding forest cuttings, illegal loggings, and unscrupulous forest extraction methods. Alternatively, tree planting should be embraced as a technique to replace the felled stands, however, some planted trees grow very slowly that delay forest regenerations (Kummer & Turner 1994).

As human population continues to grow, with the advancement in world industrial activities, deforestation will continue to exacerbate to severe levels. Simultaneously, droughts and increased instances of forest fires worsen the situation of climate change and increase the vulnerability of the world population to the food crisis. Therefore, to mitigate deforestation, the reasons behind tree cutting must be understood, and then plausible alternatives adopted to reduce direct reliance on the sensitive ecosystem.

That is why; this paper explores the potential strategies that must be implemented to curb deforestation. The best approach is to address the human causes of deforestations because they are the main contributors (Tucker & Townshend 2000). In addition to this, deforestation of tropical rainforest being the highest in the world, particularly in the developing countries, mitigation measures must be prioritize in African, Asian, and Latin America.

Introduction

Forest degradation occurs when trees in forested regions are subjected to land use change, for instance, an area covered by forest is converted to ranches, urban buildings, settlements, infrastructure, or for agricultural purposes. According to Costa and Pires (2010), forest loss affects natural system cycles, which include water, weather, soil, and atmosphere circulations.

Deforestation has a lot of negative impacts to the world population, environment, and the economy. Notably, loss of forest cover is based on social, economic, and political grounds; hence these factors form the bottom line of formulating strategies to address deforestation. Logging operations, for wood and paper products, have resulted to countless tree stands cut, particularly when the action is illegal (Tucker & Townshend 2000). Moreover, commercial trade on wood products, for example, hardwood from Central and Western Africa, threatens the long-term existence of the African rainforest.

Climate change and deforestation calls for effective and careful management tools to save both biological and geophysical functions of forests. Suggested measures include limited fragmentation, landscape management, education, and regulation, creating protected forest zone amongst others like adopting green energy (United Nations Development Programme, 2000). Further, strict laws and policies on forest resources must be in place to heavily prosecute illegal loggers and scrapping out impunity when environmental crimes are committed.

Factors Driving Deforestation

Causes of deforestation are profoundly multiple on the local, regional, and global scale. However, all the drivers of deforestation are based on social, economic, and political factors. Social factors define the society and how they relate to the forests, for example, most small-scale farmers and hunter-gatherer communities directly relate to the forest. On the other hand, economic factors relate to the levels of industrialization and how the industries source their inputs from the forest while political factors define the territorial boundaries and regulations put in place to monitor forest exploitation.

All over the world, intensive and extensive agriculture have led to the conversion of vast lands previously covered by forest. Furthermore, commercial trade on forest resources and illegal logging contribute to loss of tree stands. Other causes of deforestation include overexploitation, forest fires, wood fuel extraction, industrial growth, urban sprawl. It is worth noting that, all the possible sources are categorized as either natural or human, with the latter being the most severe and accelerating.

Mitigating Deforestation

Mitigation measures are the remedial interventions that eliminate or reduce the current rates of deforestation to ensure recovery of forest resources. When the lost forest is restored, biodiversity, soil, climate, and human welfare are improved to the better. Therefore, solving deforestation should be based on feasible and practical policies and conservation measures to necessitate sustainability and restoration (Kummer & Turner 1994). Several strategies that can be used to restore the lost treasure include:

Sustainable Agricultural Practices

Sustainability in agriculture involves integrated systems that incorporate crops and tree, particularly known as agroforestry. The mechanism ensures that farmers benefit from both the crops and tree stands. However, the practice has not been much developed in many parts of the world despite the benefits that come with it. Trees in croplands have multipurpose; for example, they serve as shelterbelts, enrich the soil, reduce soil erosion, improve yields, and create a microclimate. To appropriately commission such projects, countries should employ communities or public, private partnership (PPP) with the guide of agricultural and forestry agencies.

Monitoring Deforestation

Through aerial photography and satellite imagery, incidences of illegal logging can be monitored, which forms the base line of prosecuting the environmental crimes. Further, the monitoring and surveillance will necessitate a creation of a database on forest resource through hotspot analysis to guide prioritization of interventions (Tucker & Townshend 2000). Digital analysis done on satellite imagery has to great extent reduced deforestation in Brazilian Amazon.

Reforestation and Forest Plantations

Reforestation is planting of trees where the indigenous forest had been disturbed. To ensure the effectiveness, fast growing trees are encouraged, though; care must be taken to avoid the proliferation of the planted trees at an ecological expense (Potter, 1999). For example, impact assessment of most eucalyptus species has to be carried out to match the tree requirements and the ecology of a particular area. Again, forest plantations are important because they provide the industries with materials inputs and to reduce reliance on natural forest for wood products. Plantations have a yield capacity of 5-10 times that of the natural forests so it is essential to plant and manage fast growing tree species (Kummer & Turner 1994).

Forest Management

Management involves conservation and consideration of sustainability in utilization of forest resources. Secondly, management also means protection. When the forest is severely destroyed, utilization is ceased to create protected forest zones (Kummer & Turner 1994). These zones are out of bounds for all forms of use as the tree stands are left on their natural state. On the other hand, conservation allows people to tap the resources from the forest but, in an ecologically sustainable manner. Also, nature conservancies have been used in many parts of the world to raise endangered plant species and to raise seedlings. In Asia and some parts of Africa such as Senegal, communities based organizations raise seedlings and sell to the forestry agencies or donate to green schools and youth organizations.

Land Use Planning

All development must be environmental friendly, for example, growth of urban centers should not compromise the growth of indigenous forest. Instead, green towns need to integrate trees and concrete infrastructures (green structures). On the other hand, urban sprawl can be reduced by developing the rural areas. In a nutshell, before any land use is converted to another, precautionary measures should be put in place for planning and avoiding future consequences (Potter, 1999).

Eco-Forestry and Community Forestry

Only selected tree should be cut to ensure sustainable exploitation. This technique has minimal damages and gives the forest adequate time to recover. This selectivity permits commercial timber extraction in an ecologically sound scale. Furthermore, community forestry is done on local levels to allow the community to participate and manage local forests (Tucker & Townshend 2000).

Environmental Litigation

Laws and policies that govern forest resources must be complied with, failure to which, the offender faces the legal structure without going impunity. The litigation process must clearly outline the fines involved ensuring that the offenders pay as the civil laws or Acts entrench. Similarly, public policies should be developed to create incentives among the people for conservation and sustainable utilization of forests (Kummer & Turner 1994).

Adopting Alternative Sources of Energy

Wood fuel extraction is the world major cause of deforestation, meaning that if people divert to alternative energy source, the forest benefits. The most efficient and clean energy is solar, which can be installed even to the remote households (Potter, 1999). Again, relevant policies should govern charcoal production, which a significant contributor to tree cuttings, particularly in the poverty stricken areas.

Conclusion

Deforestation is a worldwide environmental issue that have led to complex network of problems, which can be trickled down to land degradation, climate change, and global warming, loss of biodiversity, reduces renewable resources, loss of human wellbeing, and livelihoods. Notably, loss of forest negatively affects the valuable ecosystem services, which are life supporting systems. The conversions of natural forest to other land use are caused by manmade and natural causes, the former being very accelerating. To curb future consequences, mitigation measures must be implemented and sustained. The tropical and temperate rainforest are the most threatened forest ecosystems in the world, and, therefore, prompt interventions must be implemented. Conclusively, reducing deforestation will benefit the world population, environment, and the global economy. Even though worldwide campaigns have been used to reduce the rates of forest loss, effort still needs to be put in place to avoid future impacts.

References

Andersen, L. E. (2002). The dynamics of Deforestation and Economic Growth in the Brazilian Amazon. Cambridge : Cambridge Univ. Press.

HYPERLINK “http://www.bibme.org/” o “Edit this item” Boahene, K. (1998). The Challenge of Deforestation In Tropical Africa: Reflections On Its Principal Causes, Consequences And Solutions. Land Degradation & Development, 9(3), 247-258.

Cardenas, H. O. G. (2008). Causes and Consequences of Deforestation and Land-Cover Change in Rural Communitites of Western Mexico.

HYPERLINK “http://www.bibme.org/” o “Edit this item” Costa, M. H., & Pires, G. F. (2010). Effects Of Amazon And Central Brazil Deforestation Scenarios On The Duration Of The Dry Season In The Arc Of Deforestation. International Journal of Climatology, 30(13), 1970-1979.

Durham, W. H., & Painter, M. (1998). The Social Causes of Environmental Destruction in Latin America. Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press.

HYPERLINK “http://www.bibme.org/” o “Edit this item” Kummer, D. M., & Turner, B. L. (1994). The Human Causes of Deforestation in Southeast Asia. BioScience, 44(5), 323.

Lambin, E. F., & Geist, H. (2006). Land-Use and Land-Cover Change: Local Processes and Global Impacts. Berlin: Springer.

Margulis, S. (2004). Causes of Deforestation of the Brazilian Amazon. Washington, D.C: World Bank.

Palo, M., & Vanhanen, H. (2000). World Forests from Deforestation to Transition?. Dordrecht : Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Pearce, D. W., & Brown, K. (1994). The Causes of Tropical Deforestation: The Economic and Statistical Analysis of Factors Giving Rise to the Loss of the Tropical Forests. Vancouver : UBC Press.

Potter, C. S. (1999). Terrestrial Biomass and the Effects of Deforestation on the Global Carbon Cycle. BioScience, 49(10), 769.

Sunderlin, W. D., Resosudarmo, I. A. P., & Center for International Forestry Research. (1996). Rates and Causes of Deforestation in Indonesia: Towards a Resolution of the Ambiguities. Jakarta, Indonesia: Centre for International Forestry Research.

Tucker, C. J., & Townshend, J. R. (2000). Strategies for monitoring tropical deforestation using satellite data. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 21(6-7), 1461-1471.

United Nations Development Programme. (2000). World Resources 2000-2001: People and Ecosystems : the Fraying Web of Life. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science.

Vajpeyi, D. K. (2001). Deforestation, Environment, and Sustainable Development: A Comparative Analysis. Westport, Conn : Praeger.

Definitions and Typologies of the Family Business

Definitions and Typologies of the Family Business

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Course

Instructor’s name

Date

The Concept of Socioemotional Wealth

The concept of socioemotional wealth attempts to explain the role played by family emotions in managing and controlling their businesses. It asserts that emotional construct plays a key role in family business (Davis, 2001). Family businesses have strong emotional insinuation because they are a social group with long history and enduring memories. Socioemotional emotional concept implies that families have a number of emotions including warmth, intimacy, hatred, and anger that play an important role in their business relationship since the family member’s identity are closely linked to the business. People’s perception of the family business greatly affects the image and reputation of the family members since the personal pride and self-concept of family members are closely linked with the business. It is also worth noting that there is an emotional satisfaction experienced amongst family members due to their ability to execute authority and control over their business and these emotions tend to flow back and forth.

Gomez-Mejia et al. (2011) explain that there are several other emotional constructs including emotional capital, emotional ownership, emotional value, commitment entrapment and possession attachment that have been studied and linked with family business recently. Most of the managerial decisions in the family businesses are driven by the desire to preserve and enhance the family’s socioemotional wealth. Pursuit of socioemotional wealth acts as the family business’ uniqueness and explains many of the managerial decisions made by the family members. Issues such as choosing a potential successor and other non-economic factors are considered more significant compared to the economic factors (Davis, 2001).

Family successor, for instance, are closely identified with the family business and reinforces family power and influence in the firm. Professionalism is also never an issue because recruitment and promotional practices in the family firms are always rely on social network and seniority instead of using clear criteria to screen applicants and applicant’s qualifications respectively. This kind of criteria in human resource is consistent with socio-emotional wealth because they are intended to focus on the small pool of individuals sharing family values and culture. It is worth noting that all the family principles are always integrated into the family firms and form part of the strategic decisions they make.

2.

Socioemotional wealth is evident in several other managerial and strategic decisions such as business venturing, R &D, and technological diversification, risk taking, professionalization, and succession.

Succession

Family business highly regards the significance of transferring business control from one generation to the next, which acts as amongst the most critical made in the family firms. According to Gomez-Mejia et al. (2011), family businesses normally prefer a successor from within the family as a way of retaining family control and satisfy family ambition that may eventually preserve the socioemotional wealth. Family firms usually ensure existence of personal relationship between the business leaders and their successors to promote better transfer of idiosyncratic knowledge across generations and foster the identification of the successor with the firm as well as enhancing their emotional attachment to the business (Davis, 2001).

Professionalization

Gomez-Mejia et al. (2011) assert that most family businesses are known for not considering incorporation of experts and managers from outside the firm as well as institution of formal management frameworks due to consideration of socioemotional wealth explanation. This is because employing external managers enhances information asymmetries that may limit family control over strategic decisions, lead to behavioral uncertainty and increases disputes about goals. Family business relies more heavily on social networks during the recruitment process and place more emphasis on informal training. According to Gomez-Mejia et al. (2011), mentoring relationships and informal training are put more emphasis on instead of focusing on formal training. All these practices are consistent with socioemotional wealth since they tend to indoctrinate new employees with norms and values of the business that enhances identification with the firm.

Risk Taking

Family members normally concentrate all their wealth in a particular business making their risks and returns tied to a single asset thus increasing the vulnerability. This normally turn them to be more risk averse since the cost of negative result outweighs paybacks that may be accumulated through the pursuit of a high risk venture. According to Gomez-Mejia et al. (2011), this kind of characteristic enables the family principals to accept greater risks to the firm’s financial health if taking risks may deter losses as potential losses may increase subjective risk bearing. Financial goals are never considered as important as the socioemotional wealth that triggers the family business principals to maintain a good reputation and project a positive family image while avoiding the possible loss of reputation.

R&D Investment and Technological Diversification

Gomez-Mejia et al. (2011) posit that R& D investment and technological diversification represents risk due to greater complexity, uncertainty, and rapid technological changes experienced in various industries. For socioemotional wealth purposes preservation purposes, family principles are less likely to support technological diversification despite the fact that it reduces business risk since they may lessen the socioemotional wealth. It is therefore apparent that family businesses normally invest less in R & D as a way of reducing firm risk.

Business Venturing

According to Gomez-Mejia et al. (2011), family members usually invest the family resources in business, which is normally characterized with substantial family involvement. At the initial stages of a family business, family member play an integral role in mobilizing capital, which is usually difficult due to low legitimacy and high uncertainty of attracting external resources. However, socioemotional wealth always limits new ventures in family businesses to the other related activities until the business matures and build portfolios of related businesses as members of extended family fill key positions.

References

Davis, John A. (2001). “Definitions and Typologies of the Family Business”. Harvard Business School Background.

Gomez-Mejia et al. (2011, July 26). The Bind that Ties: Socioemotional Wealth Preservation in Family Firms. The Academy of Management Annals, 5 (1), 653-707.

Definition of the two terms may be some-what problematic

Introduction

Definition of the two terms may be some-what problematic. It’s because there are some rules in the society which exist on the natural level. Whereas any of the given society has to have few sense of the societal ethic that even in absence of the formal law, could prohibit some behaviour. Consequence of this is that mostly, things the society considers for being mala in se are universal mala prohibita. On the other side, there are lot of acts which are mala prohibita that many, if not the all, citizens could consider for being acceptable that is mala prohibita only (Substantive Criminal Law: Principles and working Vocabulary). What may confuse this issue is a fact which violating any of the law is mala in se. The act promotes anarchy & undermines ability of a state for enforcing any of the laws. For objective of this discussion, though, two terms are used for classifying victimless crimes like mala prohibita versus the crimes which present the clear & quick danger to individual or to survival of the society.

    The natural crimes need that the judgment be made on basic of the morality & people don’t agree always with the moral & immoral. For instance courts have the young man charge with the statutory rape but girl consents for having intercourse & she isn’t of the age, and she has intercourse with young man on her free will, not being coerced; threaten in any of the kind of the way & knowing she was under-age. Law will yet charge young man with the statutory rape because young girl was under-age. And if she was of the age here’s no longer will this be the criminal act. It shows why these concepts not easy for applying effectively and evenly. Main crime Index is the murder and rape, homicide, aggravated assault, robbery, larceny, burglary & auto theft.

Comparing and Contrasting Natural and Legal Crime

The two kinds of the crime natural & legal are easily compared. In the legal terms natural crime is called as mala in se which wrong in & of itself, on the other hand legal crimes may be whether mala in se or mala prohibita which is wrong because this isn’t allowed by the law. The natural & legal crime may overlap in some cases. In reality, many natural crimes are mala prohibita, and which are mala prohibita that aren’t required mala in se. The natural crime is the act in which ethics of the society finds the specific action for being offensive. This type of the crime is associated with the malum in se, the term which signifies the crime which is considered wrong in & of it (Criminal Law). The legal crime is the act which violates the criminal law, the man-made law & forced by state. The legal crime is associated with the malum prohibitum, the term applied to any of the action has criminalized strictly by the statue & statutory law.

The list of major crime used by FBI in its crime index

In 2000 many of the public image of crime problem is stirred by media through celebrated cases as well as the vehicles like as the ten most wanted fugitives list of the Federal Bureau of Investigation. In the year 1950 the news reporter asked FBI for ten worst tough guys which they were hunting. Resulting publicity was too good that list became the official FBI program. This satisfied the hunger of public for details about the notorious criminal & served as the means of exposing the fugitives & encouraging the citizen participation. FBI claims that 134 ten most wanted fugitives have been apprehended as the result of the citizen recognition. May be most memorable case was arrest of the bank robber Willie Sutton when the clothing salesman recognized him on New York City subway. After the story of citizen was run in New York Times, the mobster Albert Anastasia had a salesman killed. List has reflected well the social climate of different American times. 1950s list consisted of bank burglars, robbers & car thieves during the year 1960s version featured revolutionary & radical. The year 1970s list featured organized the criminals & terrorists and this emphasis continues, the serial murderer & drug related offender abound in the later list.

The current ten most wanted fugitives list

Osama bin Laden: The international terrorist

Diego Montoya Sanchez: money laundering, cocaine trafficking & the Racketeer Influenced & Corrupt Organizations charges

James Bulger: the Boston organized crime figure who is wanted for the extortion & RICO charges

Victor Manuel Gerena: The bank robber who robbed the security company, netting dollar 7 million

Glen Stewart Godwin: the murderer & escaped prisoner

Robert William Fisher: Allegedly killed his wife & 2 young kids & then blew up house in which they lived

Richard S. Goldberg: Sexual exploitation of kids

Donald Eugene Webb: Murder of the Pennsylvania police chief

Jorge Albert Lopez Orozco: Murdered 3 people & is wanted for the un-lawful flight

Michael Astorga: Wanted for 2 murders including of the deputy of sheriff

The list doesn’t feature any women they have been on list in past, beginning with the Ruth

Eisemann-Schier to kidnap & extortion in the year 1968 Inclusion of the antiwar activists like as Angela Davis & Bernardine Dohrn was greeted with the public scorn engendered after growing the dis-enchantment with Vietnam War.

The crimes considered Mala in se or Mala prohibita

Mala in se – Any hurtful act against the other breathing creature or the property, including burglary, fraud, robbery, murder, animal abuse, assault, rape, battery, kidnaps.Rationale: Golden Rule- Do unto others as we would have them do unto us.

Mala prohibita – Only about all the city ordinances, particularly parking violation, picking up after our dog violation, weed the lawn kind violations, the junk cars in front yard violation and so many.Rationale: They are not hurting anybody & they are mainly only the other form of the taxation.

Conclusion

From the two kinds of crimes, out of which is natural crimes is called for being the part of mala in se offenses that is act that the person must understand what is wrong & must not take these actions. Mala in se offenses are always felonies and the much violent crimes. According to FBI in Uniform Crime Report murder or the assault, homicide, rape, aggravated assault & robbery are all the violent crimes. The legal crimes are associated with the mala prohibita has considered for being wrong just because there is the law prohibiting this. Mala prohibita offenses consist of the misdemeanours and felonies that include curfew violations, counterfeiting, juveniles, driving under the influence, disorderly conduct, drug abuse drunkenness, violations, embezzlement, fraud, forgery, larceny, auto theft, robbery and burglary (Criminal Law Principles: Legality Principles).     

References

Criminal Law. (n.d.). Retrieved June 13th, 2011, from http://www.mojolaw.com: http://www.mojolaw.com/

Criminal Law Principles: Legality Principles. (n.d.). Retrieved June 13th, 2011, from http://law.jrank.org: http://law.jrank.org/pages/18461/Criminal-Law-Principles-Legality-Principles.html

Substantive Criminal Law: Principles and working Vocabulary. (n.d.). Retrieved June 13th, 2011, from http://samples.jbpub.com: http://samples.jbpub.com/9780763755256/55256_CH01_001_016.pdf

Definition, Causes Of Diseases And Nursing Theory

Definition, Causes Of Diseases And Nursing Theory

Contents

TOC o “1-3” h z u HYPERLINK l “_Toc379181429” Irritable Bowel syndrome (IBS) PAGEREF _Toc379181429 h 1

HYPERLINK l “_Toc379181430” Fatigue PAGEREF _Toc379181430 h 1

HYPERLINK l “_Toc379181431” Depression PAGEREF _Toc379181431 h 3

HYPERLINK l “_Toc379181432” Hidden UT PAGEREF _Toc379181432 h 4

HYPERLINK l “_Toc379181433” Diabetes PAGEREF _Toc379181433 h 4

HYPERLINK l “_Toc379181434” Food allergies PAGEREF _Toc379181434 h 4

HYPERLINK l “_Toc379181435” Increased Blood in the Stool PAGEREF _Toc379181435 h 5

HYPERLINK l “_Toc379181436” Ulcerative Coritis PAGEREF _Toc379181436 h 5

HYPERLINK l “_Toc379181437” Angioddyplasia PAGEREF _Toc379181437 h 6

HYPERLINK l “_Toc379181438” Arthritic Pain PAGEREF _Toc379181438 h 6

HYPERLINK l “_Toc379181439” Weight Loss and Rash to Anal Area PAGEREF _Toc379181439 h 6

HYPERLINK l “_Toc379181440” Final Diagnoses/problems with ICD 9 Code PAGEREF _Toc379181440 h 7

HYPERLINK l “_Toc379181441” Nursing Diagnoses PAGEREF _Toc379181441 h 8

HYPERLINK l “_Toc379181442” Management Plan PAGEREF _Toc379181442 h 8

HYPERLINK l “_Toc379181443” Medical management PAGEREF _Toc379181443 h 8

HYPERLINK l “_Toc379181444” Teaching and counseling PAGEREF _Toc379181444 h 9

HYPERLINK l “_Toc379181445” Health promotion and maintenances PAGEREF _Toc379181445 h 9

HYPERLINK l “_Toc379181446” Cultural, Ethical and Socioeconomic Issues PAGEREF _Toc379181446 h 9

HYPERLINK l “_Toc379181447” Nursing Theory PAGEREF _Toc379181447 h 10

Some of the additional information required is:

Causes of abdominal pains

History of other ailments, like HIV/AIDS

The weather and climatic change

What causes extreme fatigue

Any liver diagnosis

Any problems with the appendix

If there any bile duct complications

Presence of irritable bowel syndrome

Any physical examinations performed

Mothers full medical history in details concerning the bad stomach

Irritable Bowel syndrome (IBS)This syndrome is associated with abdominal pains either due to abnormal contractions of intestinal muscles or visceral hyper sensitivity caused by sensitive nerves within the intestine. No causes of functional pain have been found. Diagnostic test needed are for ulcers, celiac disease, and collagenous colitis, examination of biopsies of the small intestine and colon.

FatigueMany women with anemia experience cases of acute fatigue, especially caused by menstrual blood loss. Anemia is mainly caused by iron deficiency though Maria eats regular diet. Being overweight can also be a source of fatigue, and may cause sleep disorders. The remedy would be to lose weight, quit certain lifestyles like smoking, drinking, and sleeping with CPAP device that keeps the air passages open. Taking the right diet is another remedy to help level blood sugar in optimal ranges. The diet should include foods such as eggs, and taking snacks throughout the day (Leon &, Marc, 2005),

Anemia causes iron deficiency during menstrual blood loss in women, since more red blood cells are needed to carry enough oxygen to the tissues and organs. Hypothyroidism is a thyroid, which is a small gland in the lower neck that controls metabolism. One will feel sluggish and may add weight if the gland is under active, and the metabolism functions is too slow. This occurs when the speed of converting fuels into energy is too slow.

Certain foods such as too much caffeine may add more fatigue in consumed in large quantities, even though it improves alertness and concentration if taken in moderate quantities. Chronic fatigue that lasts up to six months may present symptoms like multi joint pains, headache, and muscle pain, and can be defined as chronic fatigue syndrome. The diagnosis may need a lot of time in clearly identifying the problem if the symptom is really fatigue, and other causes of fatigue should be investigated. Cushing’s disease, other infections like malaria, HIV infection, and influenza are numerous sources of fatigue. Heart diseases such as congestive heart failure, coronary heart disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, asthma, pneumonia, and arrhythmias are also associated with fatigue. Their existence also needs to be explored.

History of drug abuse, alcohol abuse, grief, bereavement, and bulimia are psychiatric conditions that may present fatigue. Even the medication history should not be left behind when investigating the causes of fatigue. Especially anti depressants, sedatives, medication and strong drug withdrawal, steroids, and blood pressure medications. Associated symptoms include vomiting, nausea, diarrhea, blood in urine and stool, constipation, fever, muscle cramps and aches.

DepressionDepression can also be a cause of severe fatigue, as well as other physical symptoms. Other causes of depression should be examined such as headaches, loss of appetite, and other causes of emotional disorder. Depression is a very complex condition to diagnose since it is attributed to many causes. The factors that might increase depression are abuse, either physical, sexual, or emotional abuse that might make depression manifest itself in later stages of life.

Certain medications are known to enhance depression, especially drugs for treating high blood pressure, beta blockers, and reserpine. Personal conflicts are a sure source of depression, or disputes among family members. Grief or loss of a loved one, like Maria’s son was involved in an accident raises the level of sadness, thus increasing the levels of depression. Depression is also a hereditary disease that occurs in the family history. It may be passed genetically from parent to the offspring. Hippocampus is associated with cortisal, which is toxic, and those people with smaller amounts of hippocampus are likely to suffer from depression.

Brain chemistry can show the effects of anti depressants, and a deep understanding of biochemical processes related to depressions may make diagnosis easier. Women experience depression more than men due to hormonal and physical changes, coupled with long periods of sadness in new mothers. New added responsibilities in life also enhance the chances of suffering from depression. These responsibilities may be at work or home, single motherhood, caring for children and aging parents.

Hidden UTThis is common in women who have had urinary tract infection that is associated with fatigue. The symptoms are burning pain and a urging sense of emergency. Urine test known as UTI may be taken to confirm the existence of this condition. The disease does not always come with definite symptoms.

DiabetesPresence of diabetes should be investigated, as it is also associated with extreme fatigue for unexplained reasons. Abnormal high levels of sugar remaining in the blood stream instead of entering into the body cells. Even in cases of having enough to eat leads to unexplained fatigue. Testing of diabetes would be necessary.

Food allergiesThere are certain hidden food allergies that intensifies fatigue after meals. .Any type of food allergy should be confirmed. Some symptoms of food allergy are coughing, fainting or collapsing, wheezing and short breathing, nausea and bloated feeling, itchy skin and rash, diarrhea, and vomiting. All these diagnoses need not to occur at the same time to suggest food allergy. The IgE blood test can be performed to measure the anti bodies present in blood. Another test could be allergy skin prick to offer supportive evidence.

Anaphylaxis is a severe form of allergy with symptoms present in different parts of the body at the same time. These may include rashes, swelling of lips and throat, loss of consciousness, and difficulty in breathing. In serious cases, death may occur from this form of allergy.

Diagnosis for allergy can sometimes be very confusing as other conditions may mimic these symptoms. For example histamine poisoning is a kind of false allergy caused by prompt decay of certain foods. This condition is sometimes referred to as scombridae poisoning. Sometimes RAST blood test and skin prick test may not show evidence of food allergy; this condition may be confused by food additive intolerance. Aspirin is related to a number of chemical compounds found in a range of foods, a condition known as salicycates. Since Maria was on aspirin medication, she might be aspirin sensitive, since she suffers from chronic allergic conditions.

Increased Blood in the StoolThis symptom maybe caused by a number of different ailments. Inflammatory Bowel Disease that makes intestinal walls to swell, inflamed, and develops ulcers, Crohn’s disease that occurs anywhere in the digestive tract. The small intestines, colon may develop shallow, crater like areas with deep sore with cobblestone pattern.

Diagnosis of blood in stool can be an indication of hemorrhoids. In most cases, hemorrhoids are not visible, but hidden. It occurs when pressure is increased that causes sensitive veins to swell showing lumps around the anal canal and anus. Blood in the stool is not always caused by hemorrhoids; it may b a medical condition occurring in the upper gastrointestinal tract. Other causes are acute gastritis, colon cancer, irritable bowel syndrome, ulcerative colitis, Meckel’s diverticulum, colon polyps, constipation, and typhoid fever.

Ulcerative CoritisUlcerative Coritis is another type of Chrohn’s disease that affects the colon and rectum. It occurs with inflammation and ulcers in the innermost of these regions. This disease is associated with abdominal pain, diarrhea many times a day, bloody stool, and weight loss. Those with a family history are likely to develop it than those without. Patients with this disease experience joint pains, skin sores, fatigue, anemia, and frequent fevers. A colonoscopy test should be performed to ascertain the existence of this disease.

AngioddyplasiaThis is a condition where abnormal blood vessels that are fragile lead to bleeding. It may be caused by peptic ulcers associated with open sores within the stomach linings or duodenum. It is a bacterial infection called Helicobacter Pylon. There is a need to evaluate the bleeding in stool using fecal occult test that may detect hidden blood (MedicineNet.com, n.d.).

Arthritic PainRheumatoid arthritis is autoimmune illness that comes with chronic inflammation of the joints. This occurs when somebody’s body is attacked by its own immune system. This inflammation can also affect the tissues around the joints. The disease is more common in women, and may recur in families with the genetic disorder. It is caused by viral or fungi infections. Other symptoms include extreme fatigue, loss of appetite, fever, joint aches, and stiffness. Morning and evening periods of inactivity associated with rash, anemia, weight loss, and anorexia. Diagnosis involves examination of joints, and various parts of the body for inflammation. This is done together with a blood test known as sediment rate and X-ray tests, and may take several visits before a certain diagnosis is certain. Blood test to measure the degree of flammation may be necessary to detect presence of C-reactive protein. X-ray is to detect swollen tissues, bony erosions, and monitoring the progression of the disease. Eroded joints can also be detected by MRI scanning, radioactive test procedure, and bone scanning.

Weight Loss and Rash to Anal AreaWeight loss is mainly associated with eating habits; Irregular meals should be avoided to prevent drops in blood sugar level. Sexually transmitted diseases can also exhibit rashes to the anal area. Boils is an infection that fights white blood cells that the body sends through through the blood stream. The signs of boils may exhibit painful experiences and swelling in the buttocks. They are mainly bacterial in nature, follicutis inflammation can be found in hair follicles, acne, skin wounds and injuries (Golden, 2004).

Final Diagnoses/problems with ICD 9 CodeFinal diagnosis is rheumatoid arthritis and Inflammatory Bowel Disease, especially Ulcerative Coritis.

ICD 9 codes are a requirement when reporting diagnose for health insurance claims. They reduce claim delays, denials, and improve reimbursement. It is most universally accepted classifying system, external causes of injury, for coding diagnoses, health status, and health care encounters. It has the following challenges:

The tabular list is running out of numbers because of limited space for assigning codes in some case.

It does not provide codes for sufficient clinical specificity in describing severity, or complexity of many ailment conditions., thus need for additional documentations when filing claims

Limited exchange of healthcare data among healthcare organizations and professionals, since some countries are using ICD 10

It is limited in monitoring utilization of recourses

Shortcomings in measuring performance, analyzing healthcare costs, and outcomes

It was developed specifically for inpatient settings

Limited scope in including the ambulatory care services

Inclusion of emergent diseases

Group diagnoses for epidemiological purposes

Nursing DiagnosesA nursing diagnosis is a component of the nursing process or a clinical judgment of individuals, family, or community experience. These standardized nursing diagnoses are obtained through nursing assessment. NANDA international is responsible for defining, disseminating, and integrating standardized nursing diagnose. The categories include;

Actual diagnosis

Risk diagnosis

Health promotion diagnosis

Syndrome diagnosis

Management PlanNursing management plan is concerned with performance leadership in governance and decision making within organizations that have nurses. This involves planning, organizing, staffing, directing, and controlling nurse. Some of key areas are:

Medical managementMedical management is concerned with selection, training, motivation, and retaining of nursing staff in health care facilities. Work force planning involves the strategies for acquiring, utilizing, improving, and preserving human capital. This effort should be commensurate with individual and aggregate patient needs.

Staffing norms determines the quality, quantity, and utilization of nurses that match with the aims of healthcare organizations. Medical management of nurses looks at problems and opportunities within the healthcare system, and providing technical expertise.

Teaching and counselingTeaching and counseling is designed to help patients cope with illness and disease. Therefore, this aspect emanates from the needs of patients, their relatives, and nurses to meet most relevance in healthcare management. These are nursing activities aimed at providing interventions by giving information, anticipating patient problems, encouraging patient action and responsibility, assisting patients with decision making, and problem solving.

Teaching healthcare effectively to patients should provide hospitable learning environments, helping patients decide on who are to be involved in their learning process, and establishing a base line of knowledge.

Health promotion and maintenancesHealth education and communications are aimed at enhancing the well being and prevention of ill health. This is done by influencing knowledge, beliefs, attitudes, and behavior of the community.

Cultural, Ethical and Socioeconomic IssuesMaria Santiago a twenty eight year old woman Latino from Mexico. She is probably from lower average economic and social standing group. The issues that might affect her care may include gender, ethnic, racial, discrimination, lack of knowledge of specific disease regiment, cultural beliefs, socioeconomic status, and individual factors like psychological functioning, difficulty navigating health care systems, lack of social support, neighborhood stresses, and age (Dan, et al, (2011).

There is diversity in Hispanics in having access to services, utilization of services, getting appropriate outcomes of services, availability of services, and having the need for services. Her treatment will be greatly affected by her level of education, country of origin, and generation. The ethical issues could emanate from relatively few clinical applications of pharmacogenetics, where discovery of genetic factors influence response to medicines may not match with changes in clinical practice. Other ethical issues that might influence her treatment respect of persons in terms of autonomy to make decisions, and protection of vulnerable people. Treatment will solely be based on the result of the diagnostic tests rather than clinical assessment.

Nursing TheoryThe nursing theory to guide Maria’s treatment to assess her condition by all methods explained in the nursing theory. Identifying the specific needs of the patient, demonstrating effective communication and interaction with her. Selection of a theory to solve her problem, and evaluating how the nursing process was successful.

Conclusion

Nursing practice theories are limited in scope, and level of abstraction in providing frameworks for nursing intervention, predicting outcomes of the nursing practice. The theories should help to generate more knowledge in the delivery of nursing care.

In Maria’s case, nursing theories should direct specific conceptual frameworks that define Maria’s and her environment, health, and nursing in general.

References

Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA) Pictures Slideshow on MedicineNet.com. (n.d.). Retrieved from HYPERLINK “http://www.medicinenet.com/rheumatoid_arthritis_pictures_slideshow/article.htm” http://www.medicinenet.com/rheumatoid_arthritis_pictures_slideshow/article.htm

Dan L, et al, (2011), Harrison’s Principles of Internal Medicine: Mc Grawhill. Volumes 1 and 2, 18th Edition

Golden, R. (2004). A history of William Osler’s The principles and practice of medicine. Osler Library studies in the history of medicine No. 8. Montreal, McGill University,

Leon S &, Marc A. (2005), Clinical gynecologic endocrinology and infertility Clinical gynecologic endocrinology and infertility. NY Sage

Definition of terrorism

Definition of terrorism.

Terrorism can be described as unlawful use of violence or force against property or people to provoke any group of people, government or any audience due to differences in politics of the parties involved. The major causes of terrorism includes poverty, high unemployment rate of the youths and failure to resolve national and ethnic aspirations,(Tilly 2006, 166). It can also be linked with ignorance and despair of the people involved in causing the terror attacks. Other people argue that terrorism is usually as a result of bad governance systems whereby the “failed states violate human rights and creates conditions for terrorism,”(Buolden, 2004). Terrorism is nowadays a major threat to many countries and their citizens. In his campaigns, the U.S presidential candidate John McCain has come up with various strategies he will employ to ensure that terrorism is minimized globally if he is elected the next president of America.

Homeland security.

Homeland security act refers to a bill that was enacted in a congress by “the senates and the house of representatives of the united states of America” and was given a short title of “homeland security act of 2002.” This act established a department which aims at the protection of the wellbeing of the American citizens. This department is headed by a secretary of homeland security who is appointed by the president. The secretary has full control and authority over this department and all the activities under this department. The president also appoints the other key officials that ensure smooth and effective running of this department. Its main responsibility is to minimize terrorism cases and their effects to the American citizens. It aims at preventing terrorist attacks to the Americans and any losses that may occur as a result of the attacks. This department also ensures that the American borders are secure hence cannot be attacked from the borders. It also collects any information associated with terrorism or their operations and intentions and make thorough analysis to protect the general infrastructure of America. It is also prepared on the measures it can take and apply in response to any emergency that may arise. This department also coordinates with the rest of departments in government and non-governmental organizations that are concerned with ensuring that the Americans are safe from any terrorist attacks. It is also prepared to deal with any other function that comes it way and handle it in a good manner for the benefit of Americans.

The presidential candidate John McCain is said to be the one who fought for the establishment of this department in the aftermath of 9/11. Due to his long service in the American government and the navy as an officer with a unique record of military service, he has adequate knowledge on the threats facing the Americans when terrorism is concerned. He has seen many terrorist attacks on the Americans in their country and in other foreign countries. He promises to ensure that quality intelligence has been employed in his governance that will deal with terrorists from their ‘grass roots’ by uncovering them and their practices. This will be achieved by having better spies in his government. He will ensure that the important infrastructure and the boarders are well protected against attack. He promises to look in to it that his government has the capability of responding and recovering from any terrorist attack as soon as possible.

Defense spending.

For there to be successful defense and fight on terrorism, America requires a strong military background that will be enhanced by the government. On top of giving the forces the best training in the world, military leadership and technology requires to be enhanced for the forces to ensure protection of Americans. This means that the government has to spend a lot on the military budget to meet these fundamentals. John McCain has an effective plan regarding the spending of the funds meant for defense. He plans to reform the defense procurement to enhance its good and faithful spending. He plans to have a wise budgeting for the defense and a close scrutiny of its expenditure to avoid misuse of the funds and ensuring the availability of the resources for the defense’s efficiency. He feels that through ensuring the defense’s funds are spent in the right manner, it will ensure they have enough resources to deal with cases of terrorism for the benefit of Americans, national defense and the military personell. Having served the military, he also understands the risks facing the military and has promised to ensure that they and their families, get full support of the country.

Increasing military forces in terrorist countries.

In the fight against terrorism, a large number of highly trained military personell is essential to the country of America. This is to ensure that they are enjoying protection in their country or even outside the country. Since America has deployed some of its military forces to the terrorist countries such as Iraq and Afghanistan, it means that troops defending the country are few. According to McCain, for the challenges of security to be appropriately achieved, the size of the armed forces must be enlarged. He says that by increasing the forces, it will be a step forward to the global war on terrorism. He also adds that the army and the marines are the most important ones to increase in numbers to ensure protection from any attacks. He adds that since the American armies face dangerous operations in various parts of the world, they require to be highly modernized in terms of weapons and and the training they get. This is to ensure that they succeed in the global fight against terrorism.

References

Charles, T. (2006) “HYPERLINK “http://books.google.co.ke/books?id=iHKXSvKXs3oC&pg=PA166&dq=causes+of+terrorism” Why?: [what happens when people give reasons… and why]” Publisher: Princeton University Press,(166)

Definition of terrorism (Critical Theory by Richard Jackson)

Definition of terrorism (Critical Theory by Richard Jackson)

Richard defines terrorism critically as an intentional and predetermined strategy of political violence, in which anybody including the states, individuals, or groups can use it for pursuing their personal interests (Jackson 2011). Similarly, those who apply terrorism can abandon it any time meaning terrorists can change from being violence users to peacemakers and good members of a state depending on the situation. Sometimes it is quite difficult to identify a terrorist in a country because of their changing nature. According to Jackson (2011) in his book” Terrorism”, terrorism has a political motivation and is quite different from some other forms of violence by some organized groups. The groups use violence either to extort money or just serial and mass killings of innocent individuals to terrify their targets.

The other difference between terrorism and the normal riots is that terrorism involves a predetermined thought and its execution is intentional. According to Jackson, terrorism is one form of political communication and the targets of the terror are the audiences to the violence and not the victims of violence (2011). Terrorism as a political communication chooses its victims in advance unlike the military war, whose aim is to weaken the enemies and make them unable to cause more harm as Jackson (2008) explains. Some countries may try to conceal their participation in the civilian-directed violence, and this should send an alert to the societies that they intend to intimidate. There could be some plans to get rid of their opponents from the political field (Jackson 2008). State terrorism can involve the direct killing of a union or the organizers to make it weak, cause fear or some intimidation to a union. Terrorism activities involve intentional actions to civilians, such as bombing public places to instill fear and intimidation to the opponents. According to Richard’s definition of terrorism, there is intentionality in those who engage in terror activities since they know that their actions will result in terror and intimidation (Jackson 2008). The other intention is to cause fear to the civilians by use of the crude weapons, such as the grenades, bombs, and torture. The main intention of using torture on their opponents is to terrify their supporters and make them lose faith in their preferred candidates. Richard disagrees with the other types of arguments that terrorism does not solely target the civilians. However, he agrees with Goodin that some actions allow the actors to have a claim of legitimacy for other forms of violence (Jackson & Sinclair 2012).

According to the critical definition of terrorism, terrorism must not portray a form of evil violence but should be a form of a political violence.In this case, the politicians play part in fueling the violence as observed by Jackson & Sinclair (2012). Before any counter-terrorist attack on the suspected terrorists, a country should first do investigations in their country to access the political situation and the possibility of the local politician being part of the terrorists. According to Jackson and Sinclair (2012), terrorism may take various forms, such as generic terrorism, in which the actor uses intimidation to force a government or a community to fulfill some political demands. An example is the violence attacks by the Al-Shabab terror group demanding the release of the Kenya Defense Forces in Somalia (KENYA: Deadly Attacks 2014). The other form may be religious terrorism that associates violence with religion (Jackson 2011), even when it has a political influence. Non-state terrorism involves the attacks of the civilians to submit with the aim of bringing a political change in a state or country. Finally, the state terrorism is the intimidation of the civilians to submit and is executed by a third party to instill fear in the cities (Jackson 2011).

Jackson and Sinclair (2012) observe that violence may target the police officers or the military, but it does not rule out the idea of terrorism even if it did not target the civilians. For example in Kenya, some terrorist targeted the police and the military camps, such as the one that happened in Mpeketoni attacks (KENYA: Deadly Attacks 2014). Here the terrorists attacked the police camp and burned their vehicles. According to Jackson (2011), terrorism may still involve activities such as the attack on enemy soldiers and their civilian audience even if it does not wholly target the military of that state. The other action that qualifies as terrorism is the use of the military chemical weapons, which may not be effective, are demoralizing, or simply using bombs on civilians (Jackson 2011). Some of the bombs may land on the areas that were not the actual areas of the terrorists’ targets, but still the action qualifies to be terrorism. The merits of adopting the above conception of terrorism are that it does not have any artificial or illogical limit to the nature of the actor. The definition does not limit the analysis to peace since the action of the actors in the war, where there is a concentration of the political violence (Jackson 2008). The definition of terrorism includes issues, such as the state terrorism, non-state terrorism, and the gender-based terrorism. (Jackson 2008). In most cases, researchers on terrorism focus mostly on the terrorism perpetrated by the Islamic group, such as the Al-Qaida and Al-Shabaab, as in the Kenyan case. The definition based on this view does not incorporate the violence caused by the political allies against their opponents. According to Richard, some of the terrorism scholars limit their definition of terrorism to conform with protect the interests of the Western powers, and the definitions do not focus on the political actors (Jackson 2008).

For instance, during the cold war, most of the research on terrorism focused on the non-state groups but nowadays any research on terrorism has a focus on religious terrorism, especially Islam (Jackson 2011). The main disadvantage of such a focus is that it does not attempt to eliminate political violence experienced in several countries. Some forms of political violence are very oppressive to the civilians and supporters of the politicians’ enemies. The terrorism definition by Richard is advantageous over the other definitions, as it can help in offering protection to the marginalized groups that are vulnerable to the oppressive forms of violence, especially one fueled by the politicians. By adopting Richard’s definition of terrorism, it will be possible to delegitimize all kinds of violence towards the civilians more so during war times and ethnic clashes. During the war times and clashes, politicians take advantage of the war to fight their enemies and eliminate their opponents, who they think is a threat to their political seats (Jackson 2011). Through the application of this definition of terrorism, it is possible to delegitimize all forms violence directed against the civilians, especially in times of wars. The approach also holds the state responsible for some of the terrorist attacks in a country, which many scholars do not acknowledge as acts of terrorism. Jackson (2008) explains that state terrorism is one that leads to many civilian deaths and displacement of people in big numbers. The approach provides an avenue to scrutinize practices by the state, especially during counterterrorism attacks, as some of them may result to state terrorism. Failure to distinguish between the guilty and the innocent may lead to terrorism by the state if the military actions involve the use extreme force with the aim of demoralizing and intimidating the target civilians. An example of this scenario is the actions of the Kenyan military in Somalia in the “Operation Linda Nchi”. The Al Shabaab militia complained of extreme torture to their women and children (KENYA: Deadly Attacks 2014). Some of the actions the Somali people complained about were rape for their women and children by the Kenya Defense Forces and looting of their property.

The critical approach of defining terrorism by Richard provides a means to carry out an evaluation of the actions by any actors in conflict, to enhance the civilian security by reducing the amount of violence.

Richard advises the other Scholars to adopt a more meaningful definition of terrorism that will define all kinds of terrorism activities, such as political and religious terrorism. According to Jackson (2011), majority of scholars associate terrorism with Islam, which gives loopholes for politicians to carry out their attacks on the civilians. The main approaches to defining terrorism according to Jackson should be sensitive to the politics and the actions of the politicians during war times. The scholars wanting to define terrorism should do so independently and should not lean towards the geopolitical interest of the Western states to provide a meaningful approach to terrorism. The researchers should use the Western states overseas operations as examples and case studies when researching on terrorism, but should adhere to the research ethics (Jackson 2011). Some of the Western states use torture, rendition, or the community victimization when doing the counter–attacks, to enhance the security of human beings and reduce political biases. Richard’s definition does not leave room for more violence during the retaliatory attacks by the military. The other scholars do not acknowledge the participation of some states in terrorism activities, such as the use of extreme force on innocent civilians. He recognizes both the cultural and political actions that show some forms of violence and terrorism and does not support the operations by some Western states, in which they counter terrorism with more terrorism.

Richard tries to define terrorism by acknowledging and accepting the political issues to avoid the political bias and some of the limitations experienced by the use of the other approaches.

Definition of purchasing and supply management and the importance to the business world

Purchasing and Supply Management

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Definition of purchasing and supply management and the importance to the business world

Purchasing and supply management is a critical process in the implementation of projects or production of goods and services. No project or production process can take place without proper supply of the necessary recourses. Since purchase and supply management involve procurement and store keeping, it can be defined as the process of procurement, storage and monitoring of goods for sale in retail outlets, raw material for project development or raw materials, machineries and other supplies for industrial production of finished goods. The critical role purchasing and supply management plays in the accomplishment of organizational goals makes most organizations allocate it a whole department. The organizations employ purchasing and supply officers to lead these departments (Johnson, Leenders, & Flynn, 2010). A purchasing and supply officer coordinate the other staff the organization allocates to the department. Retail stores, particularly, find this department critical for monitoring the behaviors of their buyers and making sure that the store adequately stocks the goods the consumers buy frequently.

In most cases purchasing and supply management involve a range of activities that require efficient and effective skills (Johnson, Leenders, & Flynn, 2010). These include negotiating skill to negotiate with suppliers, manufacturers and wholesaler during the buying process. The purchase and supplies team should be able to work with market professionals and cost analysts when deciding what to by and what not to buy. For project implementation, this may minimize wastes and by ensuring that only what is necessary is purchased. On the other hand, retail stores are able to avoid stocking goods that will just sit on the shelves soaking in dust.

According to Johnson, Leenders, & Flynn (2010) inventory is yet another important component of purchasing and supply management. Inventory involves taking stock of what is available and what needs restocking. Inventory must be taken at regular intervals at the store or warehouse, and the recorded numbers compared with initial purchases and what need to be purchased. This helps to avoid wastage when making a new purchase of supplies. The people in charge must always research consumer behaviors to detect changes in their preference. They must also stay up to date with developments in the market. This ensure that the business offer the goods that consumers want to buy.

As stated earlier, purchasing and supply management team comprises of several people who are critical to its success. These include market researchers, pricing analysts, and marketing staff. All these must be informed of the consumer needs, and market trends to add value to the team. The team must strike agreements with suppliers and manufactures on various issues, including returning goods when they fail to sale.

Creation of a project supply, service, and material budget

Creating a project supply, service and material budge is one of the critical tasks handled by Purchasing and supply management team. It requires an intensive planning process that ensures that there is a steady supply of materials and other in puts for project implementations. The first step in this procedure it identifying what is necessary form the project. Projects plans always give details of what is necessary to accomplish specific tasks within the project, and the total amount of inputs necessary to complete the entire project. Therefore, the project plan is the guideline for determining what to purchase. This is the equivalent of determining exactly what customers what in a retail store.

Next, the team should distinguish between what will add value to the project and will only increase costs. Value comes from both goods/materials and actions. This means that the team should first decide on what material to purchase based on the project requirements. Third, the team should take the moist efficient way of supplying the materials at the project site. An example of this is visible in Toyota’s just in time approach (Chenoweth et al. 2012; Jones, & Cheshunt, 2002). Toyota only purchases the materials that are necessary for creation of its cars. Toyota orders and delivers materials to assembling plants exactly when they are needed. Choosing on the appropriate mean of delivery of material and service facilitates minimization of unnecessary costs such as warehousing.

Next the team should align purchase and delivery processes to ensure that materials get delivered without interruptions. This is a critical element of supply chain management. Warehousing can be used, but only to ensure a steady supply not to add costs. Therefore, the team should make plans to secure storage close to the project site to ensure materials are available when need. Since service can not be stored like materials in warehouses, the team should identify service providers at various stages of the project, contact them and inform them when they will be required. This is much cheaper than hiring a service provider to be available from start to the completion of the project even when their service have minimal impact or are only necessary at a specific stage during service implementation. Outsourcing can be helpful in securing service this kind of services.

Once all the above processes are done, the team should find appropriate suppliers who proved the best quality raw materials and the best prices. Other consideration that should be made include whether the supplier provide transportation and warehousing or not. If the chosen supplier does not provide transportation and warehousing service, the team should find a transport and a warehousing provider that will fit into the designed supply chain.

Finally, the team should create an inventory system to continually take stock of the available materials to ensure continued minimization of wastage in the subsequent purchases. Future purchases should also be made to deliver materials and services when they are needed.

Selecting the most qualified suppliers and strategies for negotiating prices

Supplier selection is a critical part of supplier management. According to Moser, (2006) it is important to select specific suppliers for the basic material needed for eh project. An agreement can be struck with such suppliers to supply material either to supply the material on short term of long term basis. Be deciding a supplier(s) it is necessary to conduct supplier analysis and take those who score highly. The analysis includes examination of critical components of suppliers. On a scale of 1 to 10, Pooler et al (2004) rate the components as follows:

Quality of product 9.7

Competitive prices 9.4

Delivery dependability 9.0

Service offered: technical and other 8.0

Total cost reduction assistance 7.7

New product and R&D ideas 6.2

Other information which however, has little significance to most buyers include

Financial strength 5.2

Geographical location 4.3

Reputation 4.2

Others 2.0

Using an appropriate supplier management system, the Purchasing and supply management team can compare the score of all probable supplier based on the project preferences.

Negotiation is a crucial process of communication between to parties regarding terms of engagement and so on. The best strategy for negotiation price is bargaining. Before embarking on bargaining the best price, the purchases team should first compare prices to determine the highest price and the lowest price in the market. After that, aim at buying materials at a lower price and contact a supplier with the chosen price. The team should not take “NO” for an answer but should be ready to walk away when it fails to get a fair price. The team should counter all the reason a supplier gives for not being able to lower prices. Just be because a supplier reject the initial offer, it does not mean that they can not reduce the prices. If the supplier, however, keeps the price high, the team should move on and try another supplier, unless they must, buy from the first supplier. The team should also negotiate for price reductions on subsequent purchases to ensure they get a fair and consistent price. Some suppliers may be reluctant to reduce price, but may willing lower them on subsequent purchases. The supply and management team can also use bidding. The use of bids allows suppliers to offer price and the team take the supplier who offer the best price, service package and quality.

The benefits and costs of outsourcing, and the growth pattern of outsourcing

When organizations decide to focus on their core a competency, most of their attention gets focused on are that generate a competitive advantages over competitors. The organizations focus on what directly serves their customers. As a result, they start to buy services that were initially provided internally by their employees. This is outsources. Costs are critical when outsource and the firm must consider whether it is more effective to outsource a service to develop the service internally. The cost analysis of these two alternatives is critical.

According to Pooler (2004) outsourcing can yield huge savings through both employment and benefit costs reduction, and economies of scale. Companies give their permanent employees almost equal benefits. Getting an outside provide reduces the benefits cost a company can incur, and also the outsourced service is not permanent thus the company only pays when using it. In this case, the only actual labor need is paid for when a company purchases a service. This generates great flexibility during low and high demand periods and minimizes service cost. The fact that suppliers or service provider is likely to be a specialist in a specific field increases the efficiency with which a company can improve it performance through outsourcing.

Outsourcing is on the increase. Many firms and companies are adopting it due to its cost efficiency. Outsourcing is expanding since most companies are assigning labor intensive task to service providers and concentrating on their main line of operations. For instance, most companies are increasingly outsourcing tasks such as creation of software codes in India. This trend is not likely to change since companies continue to minimize cost through seeking inexpensive material and labor and preferable utilize them at the source to minimize cots of transportation.

Benchmark organizations in purchasing and supply management

There are several companies and organization that are exemplary in purchasing and supply management. Toyota identified suppliers and developed long term relationships with suppliers. After identifying suppliers, the company focused on supplier development. This enhanced supplier competences and performance. The main competence of this approach are the ability to manage business with individual suppliers, ability to evaluate and influence the performance of suppliers, involvement of suppliers in product design, recruitment of highly skilled personnel , development of personnel to have a thorough knowledge of suppliers and facilitation of dialogue with suppliers. Toyota also employed total quality management and a lean system of supply chain. The balance and efficiency was achieve through realizing operational efficiency, ensuring steady movement through the supply chain, managing inconsistencies to minimize costs and continuously improve quality, and ensuring transparency and continuous learning.

Tesco too, having learnt from Toyota came up with an impressive supply chain management approach (Jones & Cheshunt, 2002). The retail store introduced POS scanning, centralized distribution, centralized automated ordering automated control of warehouses and EDI with its major suppliers. This increased its efficiency and capacity. According to Jones & Cheshunt (2002) Tesco borrowed the following Toyota values:

Identification of what the customers want

Differentiation between action the bright about value and those that only increase costs

Align value creation steps to ensure product movement is uninterrupted

Only transported what is needed so that nothing stays on the shelves from long and gets spoiled

Consistently reconfigure value stream to eliminate interruptions and increase responsiveness

Tesco mapped its traditional value streams, developed new value streams that flow and forged close relationships with suppliers.

Conclusion

Purchasing and supply management is an important factor in success of businesses and projects. It involves a number of activities such us inventory management, negotiating with suppliers and manufactures. Due to the critical nature of purchasing and supply management it is wise to dedicate the whole process top specific department or team. The team creates the buying procedure to buy material and service. Outsource can also be employed to buy material and services. Outsourcing helps to minimize costs and increase efficiency. Companies like Toyota and Tesco have the best example of Purchasing and supply management systems developed according to their needs.

References

Chenoweth, M. E. et al. (2012). Best Practices in Supplier Relationship Management and Their Early Implementation in the Air Force Materiel Command. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation.

Johnson, P. F., Leenders, M. R., & Flynn, A. E. (2010). Purchasing and Supply Management (14th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill Irwin

Jones, D. T., & Cheshunt, P. C. (2002). Creating a Customer-Driven Supply Chain. ERC Journal 2(2) p28-37

Moser, Roger. (2006). Strategic purchasing and supply management a strategy-based selection of suppliers. Wiesbaden Dt. Univ.-Verl.

Pooler, V. H. et al. (2004). Global purchasing and supply management. Boston, Mass.: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Stolle, Michael. (2007). From purchasing to supply management a study of the benefits and critical factors of evolution to best practice. Wiesbaden Gabler.

Definition of patriarchy and capitalism interact

Definition of patriarchy and capitalism interact

Patriarchy

Patriarchy is a type of social organization where a male heads the family and kinship, title, and descent are outlined through the line of male.

Capitalism interact

Capitalism interact is a type of economic system where ownership of the production means, investment in, exchange of wealth, and distribution is maintained and made chiefly by corporations or private individuals, especially as compared to state or cooperatively-owned wealth means.

The history of patriarchy

Patriarchy developed at a specific period in history when a number of processes involving cultural, historical, demographic, and ecological factors (developed as lifestyles) changed and new circumstances were adapted. During this period, people were mutually interactive. However, some of these lifestyle processes eventually resulted to male dominance. Male scribes, scholars, and historians have created a number of explanatory systems, belief systems, and heroes in various civilizations. This has made women to be left out and not recognized until fairly recently. Further, the culture of male-female partnership and equality was introduced. Historically, patriarchy used to be referred to the rule of autocratic by male who where the heads of their families. However, in modern times patriarchy is referred to social systems where power is among the adult men.

Relationship btw patriarchy & capitalism

The relation between capitalism and patriarchy is that of partnership. Although patriarchy and capitalism work together, some research say that they are not similar systems. In the 19th century, the family wage idea was accepted along with the separate spheres notion. This is one case where capitalism change or adjust to patriarchy. The capitalists are not happy about the better pay to males than before. Moreover, they reinforce the patriarchal (separate spheres) idea. The capitalists are contributing to gender class systems like racial class and racism systems to function as mechanisms of social control hence serving capitalism. On the other side, patriarchy sometimes will adjust to capitalism. For instance, patriarchy is not happy of giving more control to mothers over their children than before as it is in custody cases. Therefore, patriarchy and capitalism form a type of partnership thus; each will make concessions to wants of the other.

Effects of patriarchy on the distribution of income and wealth and poverty

A number of researches show that women have low or no share in income or earnings in the family. Patriarchy does not allow gender equality and this exclude woman from working outside home. For this reason, women are most vulnerable to poverty. Moreover, female become totally dependent on their men economically. Gender inequality also makes women to have more burden of household work and this makes them not to be productive. Patriarchy gives males the power to decide in their houses. This brings unequal opportunities and thus poverty gets in. Women were not allowed opportunities to higher education and this caused difficulty in labor markets. Patriarchy does not allow equal distribution of resources and this affects poverty alleviation.

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References

Nilufer. 1998. Gender and poverty: Social development and poverty elimination. Working Paper Series.

Alam, A. 2010.

Impact of gender discrimination on gender development and poverty alleviation.

Sarhad J. Agric. 27(2): 329-339

Definition of old and new advertising Plus how you think is going to be, in the future, around the whole this world

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Introduction

Advertising or marketing in general is one of the most fundamental aspects of any business. In fact, it holds a bearing on the profitability of a business thanks to its influence on the number of people who get to know about the business, as well as the consequent volume of sales or rather the conversion rates. It is worth noting that marketing, or advertising have undergone a tremendous change in the course of time. It has incorporated new techniques all in an effort to expand its reach and enhance its effectiveness.

1. Definition of old and new advertising? Plus how you think is going to be, in the future, around the whole this world?

A customer’s reflection on an experience is largely influenced by his or her anticipation of that experience, which is created prior to or in the initial visceral moments of that experience. It is worth noting that the brand pertaining to a product is essentially a person’s gut feeling about the product, organization or service. In essence, brands are the customers’ personal reflection of a certain experience, which is influenced by their anticipation. This marks the difference between new and old advertising (Tuten, 57).

Old advertising revolves around creating the appropriate anticipation and making that the participant has the best possible outset prior to the experience, as well as coloring the reflection and the usage. On the other hand, new advertising revolves around the experience. It involves the creating the experience, participating in it, as well as adding some extra experiences so as to enforce and diverse the brand (Tuten, 89).

The differences between old and new advertising go deeper than the definition. They go into the different techniques that are used in the old and new advertising. However, as much as the techniques may not have undergone such a tremendous change the venues have changed almost entirely.

One of the techniques of old advertising was newspaper advertising. Prior to the advent of the internet in many households, the consumers spent quite a lot of time perusing the newspapers from the front page to the back. This was, in fact, the best way of getting information on what was happening in the neighborhood, as well as finding vendors of certain products and services. Of course, people still “peruse” papers for such information, but the venue has changed entirely. Consumers can get the information that they need online. In fact, the information is updated in real time, which has forced newspapers around the world to shut down and adopt the online version of offering the information.

In addition, old advertising involved in-person social networking, or one-on-one marketing. In this case, new business owners would benefit immensely from attending numerous social functions that were sponsored by the local civic organizations. Many people in such localities would gather for drinks and hors d’oeuvres and close business deals, which were based on the adage, “scratch my back, and I will scratch yours”. In new advertising, social networking occupies quite a crucial component of marketing, but the venue has been modified entirely. This has been made possible by the advance in science and technology, which has allowed for digital communication in social media websites such as MySpace, LinkedIn, Twitter and Facebook. It is worth noting, however, that the rules pertaining to polite interaction have remained intact. Business relationships, even in the social media websites, would not be developed in a manner that does not support face-to-face interactions. In essence, it is always imperative that businesses adopt respectful tones when advertising online and take an interest in other members via written word (Constantinides et al, 49).

Old advertising also involved cold sales calls, where marketers would go through long lists of telephone numbers and make calls while hoping that the individuals on the other end of the line would be interested in the products and services they were selling. New advertising, however, involves websites where the customers would do their shopping online (Scott, 69). In essence, the vendors only have to create websites and list their products on sales letters, then use fundamental website optimization techniques for the search engines and voila! They have the customers streaming to their websites (Constantinides et al, 78).

In my opinion, advancement in technology is yet to show or exploit its full potential. In essence, it is extremely likely that new advertisement that involves social media websites is here to stay and is essentially the future of advertising (Dury, 59).

2. Traditional and nontraditional – VS – New Social Media.

Social media have formed an enormous part of advertising. As I stated earlier, social networking is not an entirely new phenomenon. It has always been incorporated in advertising with many vendors aiming at expanding their reach through business conventions, where deals are made between them. However, there has been a complete modification of the medium that is used in the modern times.

Traditional and nontraditional social media mainly involved the print media such as magazines, newspapers, as well as network radio and television. This has, however, changed entirely in the recent times, thanks to the entry of new social media. In this case, social media websites have become the key marketing grounds for many companies (Scott, 78). It goes without saying that, this new social media has had tremendous success with every other business seeking ways of tapping into the numerous opportunities that the social media presents. There are various reasons that have led to the tremendous success of the social media over the traditional and nontraditional methods of advertisement (Gladwell, 97).

First, the new social media allow for increased interaction between the vendors and their customers, whether potential or existing. It is worth noting that, the customers not only get an opportunity to place their order online but also communicate with the vendors in real time especially when they need more information on the services and products for which they are looking. In essence, the communication channels are opened while the exposure of the company’s products and services is expanded. Conventional media were limited as far as instant access to communication channels is concerned. New social media, therefore, provides companies with an almost real-time reaction, which is indeed beneficial for companies in dealing with the emerging communication crisis (Qualman, 64). They have come up with a dedicated, and around-the-clock, close monitoring of the online social spaces, thereby giving them the capability to address minor complaints in a speedy manner before they develop into public relations disasters. It goes without saying that consumers have an opportunity to view the varied products that the company may be offering than in the case of tradition media, which essentially involved word of mouth.

New social media have also allowed for real-time customer management. It is worth noting that close customer management via the social media translates into enhanced customer service experience (Qualman, 43). For example, most of the queries made by customers in companies’ twitter accounts are fundamentally responded to in full public view. In essence, the new social media create a perception in customers and noncustomers that they are responsive. This, in effect, provides for the manifestation of powerful results through impressive service. The approach provides for an enhanced level of transparency, as well as genuine authenticity to the profile of the company and ultimately enhances its customer retention efforts. This adds to the advantage that the use of new social media is arguably more cost effective in the long term than the traditional media (Qualman, 89).

However, it is worth noting that the new social media has led companies to loss control over the consumer perceptions of their brand. There has been a reduction in the control that companies have over their corporate message, as well as the individuals that are responsible for disseminating information pertaining to the organization. It is noteworthy that any individual with a computer and internet connection in capable of commenting or reviewing varied brands whether on the social media or in other websites, in the internet. The effect of “media democratization” comes as a crucial inducement for the reevaluation of the manner in which companies and brands communicate (Qualman, 67).

3. Compare Traditional and nontraditional between USA against Middle Eastand Saudi Arabia and how the different?

There are evident differences and similarities between traditional and nontraditional advertisement methods in Middle East or Saudi Arabia and the United States. These differences have a bearing on the impact of the two types of advertising in the different settings. It is worth noting that the key differences in the two regions mainly pertain to the media used.

One of the similarities between the advertising in the United States and Middle East and Saudi Arabia is the incorporation of social networks in the traditional advertising. It is worth noting that the United States and the Middle East both used social networks such as organizational conventions in their advertisement (Evans and McKee, 47)..

However, the difference comes as to the extent of advertisement in the case of traditional methods. In the United States, traditional methods of advertisement such as newspapers, magazines, televisions and radio networks were highly used and regarded to the extent that they went beyond borders. This was, however, not the case in the Middle East and Saudi Arabia. It is noteworthy that, most adverts targeted the local markets in which case companies and businesses never saw the essence of advertising with them as they were already conversant with the various regions. In fact, multinational corporations had to have their own advertisement agencies or departments to cater for such needs (Evans and McKee, 56)..

As for nontraditional advertisement, the uptake of such techniques in the United States is considerably higher than that of the Middle East. In fact, websites and internet shopping is regarded as the main way of business, which is not the case in Saudi Arabia and Middle East.

4. Write about the advertising agencies and ARE they still use the traditional way or they change to be one of the new social media. And why they change from old style way to the newest ways.

The role that advertising agencies play in enhancing the profitability of businesses cannot be understated. These refer to outside companies that meet the advertising and marketing needs of other organizations and businesses. They provide a full range of services pertaining to advertising, as well as advice that is based on studies conducted on the market, advanced sales techniques and popular culture (Evans and McKee, 57). It is worth noting that they can be objective as to the promotional needs of the client thanks to their independence from the client business or company.

Advertising agencies come up with logos, thereby creating attractive and effective color schemes that draw the attention of the customers to their clients’ adverts. In addition, they prepare brochures and slogans in which they incorporate descriptive copies for the sales materials. In some cases, they may come up with public service announcements for social programs and charitable organizations, as well as produce press releases for new products, events or programs of their clients. It is noteworthy that advertising agencies use varied forms of media in the promotion of their clients’ organizations or businesses, as well as goods and services. These include radio and television commercials, infomercials, magazine advertisements, social media websites, as well as newspaper ads. In some cases, advertising agencies may plan events, give away some promotional items or even offer booths at conventions (Hameroff, 17).

The working of advertisement agencies mainly revolves around getting a clear knowledge of the services and produces that the client is offering. Once they have this information, they determine the demographics that provide the most appropriate audience for the promotion of these goods and services (Hameroff, 67). For example, in case the client company sells designer, lady handbags, the advertising agencies are likely to strive to position the clients’ television adverts in channels that are geared towards women or during programs that target women. It is worth noting that the tone and look of the advertisement campaign depends on the demographics. For example, in cases where the company targets mature audience, the design elements are likely to take on a traditional look (Hameroff, 79).

Evidently, advertising agencies have numerous mediums through which they can serve their clients and execute their roles. Most of these methods of advertising use traditional advertising methods. This, however, does not undermine the fact that there has been a tremendous shift in the mediums that advertising agencies use, with many of them opting for the new social media. These include social networking sites such as Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn, MySpace, as well as the advertising companies’ own websites. This has been triggered by the need to keep up with the ever-changing marketing and advertising options. As much as the adoption of new social media advertising has been slow, numerous companies have realized the importance of keeping up with the emerging trends. There are various reasons for this shift in favor of new social media (Hameroff, 40).

One of the key reasons on why advertising agencies are shifting to social media advertising is the magnitude of exposure that the social media avails. It goes without saying that many consumers do their shopping online. In essence, the appropriate social media campaign has the capacity to reach millions of people who use social media every day. Reaching such an audience would have been a herculean task for the agencies if they used traditional means of advertising (Hameroff, 67).

In addition, the new social media advertising offers relatively immediate results. It is extremely possible for companies to have their website visitor increase tremendously depending on their adverts’ effectiveness. This provides an excellent ground for launching events and products (Hameroff, 27).

5. In terms of advertising, how OLD and NEW advertising impact the societyin USA?

It goes without saying that there exist some fundamental differences between old and new advertising. This is not only as to the techniques but also the venues where such marketing occurs. In essence, there are fundamental differences in their impacts on society (Bughin, 69). These differences are compounded by the variations among the different communities or societies as they define the absorption of such forms of advertisement. This, however, does not undermine the fact that there exist some similarities between the impacts of the two advertising methods whether in the same or different communities regardless of the absorption (Simmonds, 78).

In the United States, it goes without saying that the absorption of new advertising has been quite high. This has been partly due to the freedom and democracy that the country enjoys especially as far as sharing information and speech is concerned. In the same way, the impact of both old and new advertisement has been tremendous (Simmonds, 67).

First, these forms of advertising have opened up communities and new markets for businesses. This is especially due to their tremendous reach in the market, which allows many users to be reached every day especially in the case of new advertising. Of course, there are variations as to the reach of both forms of advertising, which consequently leads to differences in their impacts. Either way, they have opened up communities and allowed for enhanced communication between the varied stakeholders (Petley, 34).

In addition, new advertising has enhanced the participation of individuals in the building of varied brands. It is worth noting that the increase in internet usage coupled with the simultaneous decrease in the viewing of television has enabled the consumers in the United States to have increased control on their view of and interaction with advertising, as well as their capability to filter the same (Spurgeon, 22).

In addition, new advertising has allowed for the incorporation of peer-delivered and user-generated content, as well as ad-revenue-sharing models, where amateurs and semi-professionals have the opportunity to come up with low-cost advertising content. This has, consequently, resulted in an expansion, in the realm of adverts’ creativity (Spurgeon, 23).

On the same note, it is noteworthy that there has been a change in the advertising format from impression-based to a relatively impact based format. In essence, marketers now have the capacity to measure beyond the ad-reach to the actual engagement of the service or product. In addition, the adverts space that is currently available via efficient and open exchanges has led to the replacement of proprietary marketers by open platforms (Stafford, 67).

The proliferation of new advertising has made people almost immune to the consuming culture process. It has become imperative for the advertising industry to revive itself, thanks to the fact that the numerous products in the culture industry have regenerated to a something akin to a visual distraction (Fox, 45). It is worth noting that the viewers’ attraction is captured by the novelty and excitement with which adverts come, which also props up the culture industry thereby making sales. The success of any advert lies on getting noticed, which explains the reason as to why people continue buying advertised products even when they can see them (Stafford, 45).

6. In terms of advertising, how does old and new advertising impact the society in Middle East and Saudi Arabia?

In understanding the impact of new and old advertising on the society of Middle East and Saudi Arabia, it is imperative to examine the regions involved. This is because each region incorporates its own culture, as well as likes and dislikes, which effective marketing aims at exploiting to their advantage. It is worth noting that the Middle East and Saudi Arabia have not been left behind as far as the incorporation of new advertising is concerned. This, however, does not undermine the fact that their incorporation is a bit low compared to other regions such as the United States. In essence, the magnitude of advertising impact may be different. However, there are various similarities between the impacts between the impacts of old and new advertising in Saudi Arabia and United States (Stoklossa and Rempen, 69).

Until the late stages of the 90s, Saudi Arabia’s advertisement was mainly restricted to the local media. Most companies saw no need for advertising agencies since most the media were mainly local. After all, they had a perfect knowledge of the local market, in which case they preferred to create their own in-house creative departments which would sell their services and products to the local consumers (Kavoossi 36). This cheap and seemingly efficient status quo remained for decades. However, this has changed immensely in the recent times with close to 50% of internet users in the Middle East and Saudi Arabia being on social media. Research has also shown that for a fifth of internet users (20 percent) in Saudi Arabia, following and liking a brand mostly translated to purchasing products that appear under the brand name (Fox, 78).

One of the principal impacts of old and new advertising is opening up societies in these regions to each other, as well as to other societies around the world. It is worth noting that as much as old advertising was the main thing until the late 90s, it still enabled the interaction between the societies in these regions (Kavoossi, 45). This was complemented by the entry of the new advertising, which opened up societies in these areas to other societies in the world. Evidently, there is a considerable uptake of new advertising in Saudi Arabia and the Middle East. In essence, the communities in this area have expanded their view on the outside world.

On the same note, the opening up of these markets has not only allowed for changes in market structures but also increased the competition between local and international market players. Evidently, the competition has led to a reduction in the prices of commodities (Darouni, 67).

In addition, old and new advertising has led to an increase in innovation in the two regions. This is especially having in mind that there has been an increase in the level of competition. As stated, the attraction of potential consumers is mainly piqued by the attractiveness of the adverts, as well as the creativity or innovation that has been incorporated in the making up of the adverts. In essence, both amateurs and semi-professionals in adverts have had to enhance their creativity so as to have an edge in the market and increase their market share (Darouni, 57). Obviously, this has also involved the establishment of numerous advertising agencies in these regions. It goes without saying that the advertising techniques have also led to the expansion of existing markets in these regions.

However, old and new advertising has also created relative insecurity among the people in these regions. This is especially in the case of new advertising, which involves the internet. It is worth noting that some of these websites share their customers’ private and confidential information with other websites, thereby endangering the lives of their customers (Stoklossa and Rempen, 78). This was unheard of in the case of old advertising techniques, as all the consumers would do was watch television adverts or listen to radio commercials and peruse papers for information on the various vendors.

Works cited

Scott, David. The new rules of marketing and PR. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons. 2007. Print

Gladwell, Malcolm. The tipping point. New York: Back Bay. 2000. Print

Dury, Glen. ‘Opinion piece: Social media: Should marketers engage and how can it bedone effectively’, Journal of Direct, Data and Digital Marketing Practice. 2008 print

Constantinides, Efthymios., Romero, Carlota Lorenzo and Boria, Miguel A. Gómez. Social media: A new frontier for retailers?’,European Retail Research, (2008). Print

Bughin, Jacques. The rise of enterprise 2.0’. Journal of Direct, Data and Digital Marketing Practice. 2007. Print

Tuten, Tracy L. Advertising 2.0: Social Media Marketing in a Web 2.0 World. New York: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2008. Print

Evans, Dave. Social Media Marketing: An Hour a Day. New York: John Wiley & Sons 2008. Print

Qualman, Erik. Socialnomics: How Social Media Transforms the Way We Live and Do Business. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2009. Print

Evans, Dave & McKee, Jake. Social Media Marketing: The Next Generation of Business Engagement. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2010. Print

Anderson, Eric. Social Media Marketing: Game Theory and the Emergence of Collaboration. London: Springer, 2010. Print

Petley, Julian. Advertising. New York: Black Rabbit Books, 2003. Print

Simmonds, William G. Advertising Barns: Vanishing American Landmarks. New York: Voyageur Press, 2004. Print

Fox, Stephen R. The Mirror Makers: A History of American Advertising and Its Creators. Illinois: University of Illinois Press. 1997. Print

Darouni, Kamal, G. Advertising and marketing communications in the Middle East. London: Notre Dame University Press, 2002. Print

Kavoossi, Masoud. The Globalization of Business and the Middle East: Opportunities and Constraints. London: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2000. Print

Spurgeon, Christina. Advertising and New Media. New York: Taylor & Francis, 2007. Print

Stafford, Marla, R. Advertising, Promotion, and New Media. New York: M.E. Sharpe, 2005. Print

Stoklossa, Uwe & Rempen, Thomas. Advertising: new techniques for visual seduction. New York: Thames & Hudson, 2007. Print

Hameroff, Eugene J. The Advertising Agency Business: The Complete Manual for Management & Operation. New York: McGraw-Hill Professional, 1998

Definition of justice in relation to courts

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Pursuing Criminal Justice Outline

Definition of justice in relation to courts

In the world, people are bound to arrive at disagreements a number of times. They revert to courts to arbitrate over the disagreements and arrive at a decision. Justice entails fairness in arriving at a decision. For courts it will involve an independent investigation of the truth in the circumstances. Courts of law are supposed to be fair in their determination of cases. Fairness in this case does not involve establishing the truth at all costs but truth within the law. If one is not able to prove their truth to the court, then it is not the business of the court to assume the truth. In an adversarial system, the court’s definition of fairness and justice is based on the evidence presented by parties and using this evidence within the law to arrive at a decision. These parameters of law include due process of law and rule of law.

Three components of court that illustrate justice

Justice in courts is exhibited when we consider courts procedure, legitimacy as well as independence in the investigation of truth.

Court’s procedure

The court in hearing or in resolving a certain case should adhere to due process of law. This entails not condemning any person until they are heard on their defense. The court should always work on the presumption that every one should be presumed innocent until they are proved guilty. Such people should be given an opportunity to present their case and defense to the court.

Legitimacy

The courts should always observe legitimacy in their attempt to resolve a dispute. For example if it involves acceptance of evidence for the prosecution, it should only accept evidence that has been collected within the law and avoiding accepting evidence that has been collected using trickery. Further courts can only enforce agreements that are legitimate and within the law. Legitimacy is very crucial in assisting courts in arriving at a fair and just decision as it ensures the court acts within the law.

Independence

In any court proceedings, the judge, lawyers as well as the jury are expected to act independently in their investigation of any crime. The judge, jury and should not be biased or influenced by any motives in the court. If a person involved in a certain have a certain interest in the case under consideration, they should always declare their interest and step down from being involved in hearing the matter. This will ensure that they are not influenced by anything in the arrival of a conclusion.

Changes that have occurred to courts as a result of September 11 attacks

After the September 11 attacks courts have adopted in a major way so as to be able to deal with the various changes that happened in the Criminal Justice System. This is especially so following the much legislation that was passed by the congress to deal with the emerging terrorist threats. These laws introduced new crime definitions especially the Patriotic Act that was meant to counter all acts of terrorism.

Biggest challenges to the courts in the next 10 years

One of the biggest challenges facing the court is pertaining its independence. As much as we talk of independence of judiciary owing to separation of powers, complete separation is not possible and therefore some influence especially from the executive is bound to happen.

Secondly, there are many controversies following the constitutionality of some legislation. Without a conclusion on the legality of these laws the courts will always arrive at conflicting conclusions.

Finally, courts are faced with the problem of backlog of cases. This is attributed to the fact that the number of judges especially in federal courts is less if compared to the number of cases that are presented to the courts. This results in delay in hearing and determination of cases.