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social norms

Introduction

In spite of the expansive increase of women in advanced education during the recent decades, the wide example of men picking more math, engineering and science and women picking more education, consideration and humanities holds all through the African countries. During the most recent decades the advanced education frameworks in all developing countries nations have encountered substantial progressions, of which the significant likely is the steady passage of women to the point that they today command the colleges. Aside from a couple of nations, in year 2000 more than 55 percent of the students in advanced education were female. Not only are most student females, as well as acquire the share of four year college educations, as outlined for a couple of nations. Alongside this change, the general desire was that the gender isolation between instructive fields would step by step vanish. Men were required to begin contemplating education to a bigger degree, while women were relied upon to begin perusing engineering and physical sciences. While there has been a meeting in the decision of real, a momentous level of sexual orientation isolation still remains. As a rule, gender fairness has been arrived at in subjects like law, drug and business & organization. A couple of subjects, for example, life sciences and brain science, have passed from being male-commanded to being female-ruled amid the previous decades.

Social norms are known to influence a single person in her/his decisions from numerous points of view. On account of subject of degree, therapists and sociologists have amid the most recent years indicated an arrangement of elements that could influence decision of major at the college, which all fit in with the social norms classification. Most importantly, it creates the impression that “even people who don’t generally accept that men are more skilled than women are likely mindful that this conviction exists in the society and expect that others will treat them as indicated by this (Swai 45). This desire has been indicated to adjust conduct and inclination judgments. That is, regardless of the fact that an individual does not accept that she (he) is sub-par (prevalent) to any other person, the sheer conviction and conviction that others suspect as much influences conduct. Second, it creates the impression that arithmetic, designing and other ‘bad-to-the-bone’ logical subjects are seen as ‘manly (Swai 45)’. Given that there seems, by all accounts, to be no investigative backing for such thoughts, they are by definition social builds (that may be some piece of a social standard). As per analysts and sociologists, this infers that a lady’s perception toward oneself could be adversely influenced by entering this field of study, since she then breaks the social desires and need to persuade both herself and whatever remains of the world that she is in the same class as any man in her “manly” field of study (Ambanasom 67). At last, social norms, in opposition to intrinsic inclination – practically by definition – change about whether with societal and social patterns. The women’ development in the 1960s and 1970s may well have impelled changes in instructive norms, which gradually have had pervasive impacts on women’ and men’s decisions of major.

Women because of their obligation regarding home and family, pick a major that does not lose its esteem about whether, in the same way as education. This speculation can’t, nonetheless, be the whole clarification behind the example within reach. Above all else, women with a four year certification are more probable both to be working full-time and to put off their first youngster a few years (in correlation to women with less education). This recommends that these women are generally arranged towards work market movement (Ambanasom 86). Women constitute 50% of the students in law and more than a large portion of the students in life sciences, two subjects that are profoundly delicate to a consistent upgrading of information. It has been contended that women maintain a strategic distance from the most prestigious education, for example, physical science and law. While truly there are few women in physical science, it is not valid for law, which shows that it is not the degree of renown of a certain instructive program that anticipates women to enter, but instead something else. Truth be told, the prerequisite for solution and science (both female-ruled fields in 2000) are like those for perusing arithmetic and material science, subjects with a solid male-predominance (Nafukho, Maurice, and Ruth 102). Social norms are absolutely a variable to consider, and an additionally early decision in auxiliary school together with potential varieties in comes back to subject of degree.

Challenges facing women scientists and engineers today

Women have progressed beyond anyone’s expectations as researchers and designers; a couple of them are heads of colleges and CEOs in investigative and building organizations. The issue is with the words “a couple” rather than “harshly half.” Despite 30 years of exertion to close the sex crevice, it hasn’t happened. Expanding consideration has been attracted to the issues confronted by women in science, building and engineering (SET). Women are unequally spoken to in science and their vocation movement is not similar to their male associates. The developing enthusiasm toward this point might somewhat be a direct result of the developing familiarity with the tremendous undiscovered monetary potential that women speak to (Lewis 75). The issue crosses national fringes yet appears to be prone to be best handled at a mixed bag of levels from neighborhood and provincial to national and global. The European Union, for instance, has as of late set up a ‘women and Science’ division to accumulate facts (of which few are at present accessible) and has made a system for women in these fields, activities that are as per its general standards in regards to equivalent open doors. (At the point when the Community was set up, the idea of equivalent open doors was restricted to the guideline of equivalent compensation. Correspondence of chance is presently sanctified in the Treaty of Amsterdam as one of the European Union’s targets (Lewis 85). The Treaty’s later Articles will empower fitting measures to be taken against segregation, and gives the particular legitimate premise to balance of treatment in the middle of men and women.) But in the USA the social event of such facts has been drilled since 1981, with the executive of the National Science Foundation consistently showing up for Congress and government authorities on the amount of women in business and preparing in science and designing (Misra 84).

Hard actualities on the urgent phases of a lady’s vocation in science are fragmentary, however mounting confirmation and episodic reports have a tendency to concur. Those staying in science frequently confront segregation, being utilized on a less secure balance and accepting lower awards than their male associates. In the interim, women that leave science for option professions can toll minimal better. In spite of the fact that there may be just a handful of studies, they progressively give weight to the recommendation that sexual orientation inclination is still fit as a fiddle, and without a doubt kicking. A fascinating perception is that African colleges making the most advancement at enhancing the position of women are those that have been as of late changed from specialized universities (Misra 96). This, which is humiliating for the more established, since a long time ago settled colleges, may be uncovering, that a male-commanded society exists in the customary focuses of advanced education that can militate against women’ accomplishing status or even correspondence. Such a “stronghold” climate does not win to the same degree in the “new” African colleges.

Women are under-spoken to on investigative sheets as they are on sheets in the corporate world. In a few nations, in the same way as Lewis, standards are connected to sheets delegated by the National Research Councils, yet in spite of these exertions, men are especially over-spoken to on choice boards inside the regular sciences and technology. The other challenge is when women attempt to have their youngsters. It hard to return once you’ve had a profession break and there are two explanations behind this. In most different employments, there is a profession structure and you’re utilized forever – you work for a firm, you have your agreement, with maternity leave and different rights obviously settled and anticipated (Misra 109). In science, you just have security in your ahead of schedule to mid- 30s, when you get a lectureship for instance and that being said it’s so shaky. It’s extremely uncommon for somebody on their 20s to have a lasting, secure occupation, which means they’re on delicate cash contracts which mean you’re just on a par with the amount of papers you distribute. In the event that you then require some serious energy off to have children, it means you’re contending with men who are two of three years in front of you despite the fact that they’re the same age, in light of the fact that they haven’t had the same profession breaks that you’ve had (Misra 119). These issues are especially clear in the realm of experimental exploration, which must be seen as an exceptional case.

Strategies to improve working environment

Working conditions alludes to the working environment and parts of a worker’s terms and states of business. This spreads such matters as: the association of work and work exercises; preparing, abilities and employability; wellbeing, security and prosperity; and working time and work-life offset. Pay is likewise an imperative part of working conditions. Gender uniformity is not pretty much financial strengthening (Lewin, Bruce and Paul 56). It is an ethical basic, it is about decency and value, and incorporates numerous political, social and social measurements. Sexual orientation correspondence, in any case, is likewise a key element in reported toward oneself prosperity and joy over the world. So as to enhance the nature, the government ought to give great quality competitive childcare for all folks and paid maternity leave for moms in business. Support a more equivalent imparting of parental leave, likewise by holding piece of the paid leave qualification for the elite use by fathers (Lewin, Bruce and Paul 60).

The government ought to uproot disincentives to paid work made by expenses and profit frameworks and guarantee that work pays for both folks. This is on the grounds that formal childcare backing is especially vital for raising female business levels and for accomplishing more sexual orientation balance all through the working life. The government ought to address social boundaries and generalizations about the part of women in the public eye, business and the general population division (DuBrin 65). This is on the grounds that women accomplish more unpaid work than men in all nations and the gender crevice builds with the landing of kids. The government ought to acquaint targets and measures with screen advance on female representation on sheets of recorded organizations. This is on the grounds that women frequently work low maintenance as it encourages consolidating work and family obligations, yet this habitually has a go at an expense to their long haul vocation and income prospects.

The government should fortify the ability to apply a sexual orientation responsive approach all through the general population money related administration cycle and improve sex sway appraisals. This is on the grounds that in a lot of people low-pay nations, youngsters are more prone to be none, of these occupied with paid work nor in education or preparing than young people.

The government ought to guarantee that arrangements for women claimed undertakings target new companies and little ventures, as well as energize and help development desire of all current firms. This is on the grounds that Women are less sharp than men on beginning their own particular business and women ambitious people keep on being a minority in all nations. There ought to be Promotion of exhaustive help projects focusing on women possessed undertakings in cutting edge parts (DuBrin 76). This is on account of endeavors possessed by women are essentially more diminutive and less spoken to in capital-concentrated segments and these and different components have a tendency to punish them as far as deals, benefits and work profit. The government ought to guarantee equivalent access to back for male and female ambitious people. This is on account of women ambitious people depend significantly short of what men on advances, both for start-up and for financing their exercises.

Changes in meeting expectations conditions and different parts of the livelihood relationship can produce genuine mechanical relations issues. One issue is that specialists might not have exact data about their working conditions in any case. This was tended to by Council Directive 91/533/EEC of 14 October 1991 on an executive’s commitment to advise workers of the conditions pertinent to the agreement or business relationship (Wunderlich and Peter 95). The mandate stipulates that the boss must give data coating all ‘crucial parts’ of the job relationship. The head honcho is obliged to set up a report with the essential data, and offer it to the representative not later than two months after the beginning of vocation. Further, another record that reflects any progressions in center working conditions must be issued. The ordinary principle is that a business can’t change the terms and states of work without the assent of the worker, when such alterations are outside the government privilege (Wunderlich and Peter 103). Thus, simply educating the worker by a composed proclamation is not indisputable of the presence of a concurred change in the terms. At the point when the boss does not have the right in the agreement – in the event that they attempt to modify rates of pay, hours of work, or the status or evaluation of the worker – they must get the representative’s assent before the change can have any lawful impact. The presence of a composed explanation does not imply that it has been concurred and is along these lines tyWork cited

Ambanasom, S A. Education of the Deprived: Anglophone Cameroon Literary Drama. Mankon,Cameroon: Langaa Research & Pub, 2010. Print

DuBrin, Andrew J. Leadership: Research Findings, Practice, and Skills. Boston: HoughtonMifflin, 2001. Print.

Lewin, David, Bruce E. Kaufman, and Paul Gollan. Advances in Industrial and Labor Relations:Vol. 17. Bingley: Emerald, 2010. Print.

Lewis, Richard D. When Cultures Collide: Managing Successfully Across Cultures. London:Nicholas Brealey, 2000. Print.

Misra, Baidyanath. Population Stabilisation and Development. Cuttack: Council of CulturalGrowth & Cultural Relations, 2002. Print.

Nafukho, Fredrick, Maurice Amutabi, and Ruth Otunga. Foundations of Adult Education inAfrica. Hamburg: UNESCO Inst. for Education, 2005. Print.

Sutherland-Addy, Esi. Gender Equity in Junior and Senior Secondary Education in Sub-SaharanAfrica. Washington (D.C.: World Bank, 2008. Print.

Swai, Elinami V. Beyond Women’s Empowerment in Africa: Exploring Dislocation and Agency.New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010

Wunderlich, Gooloo S, and Peter O. Kohler. Improving the Quality of Long-Term Care.Washington, D.C: National Academy Press, 2001. Print.

Introduction and Objective

Introduction and Objective:

The Nkye shoe company has some data on SHOE SIZE, HEIGHT, GENDER and they are looking to change their business model based on this data which is to “include only one size of shoes – regardless of height or gender of the wearer”. So based on their objective we can define the hypothesis as below for Gender and Height:

For gender:

Null Hypothesis (Ho): There is no statistically significant difference in the population mean size of shoes for males and females.

Alternative Hypothesis (Ha): There is a statistically significant difference in the population mean size of shoes for males and females.

For Height

Null Hypothesis (Ho): There is no statistically significant difference in the population mean size of shoes among different height categories.

Alternative Hypothesis (Ha): There is a statistically significant difference in the population mean size of shoes among different height categories. At least one category has different mean from each other.

Data and variables:

Here we have three variables which are

SHOE SIZE, HEIGHT, GENDER

Here SHOE SIZE is continuous variable

GENDER is categorical variable

and HEIGHT is also continuous variable.

We have 35 observations in these three variables and there is no missing data.

As our objective is to see whether there is any significant difference between the population shoe size for across different heights of the wearer so we need to convert this variable into category so that we can perform the test and get the information from the analysis. The Height variable will be categorized as

60-65 -> Group 1

65-70 -> Group 2

70-75 -> Group 3

75-80 -> Group 4

Note: We will test the above hypothesis at 5% level of significance.

Method of Analysis:

Here we have to test the population mean for two groups as well as for more than two groups. We will use t test for unequal variance and ANOVA (One way analysis of variance) to test the above hypothesis and objective.

T test for independent sample will be performed for Gender as there are only two groups such as Male and Female.

ANOVA test will be performed for Height as there are more than two groups which is defined below again.

60-65 -> Group 1

65-70 -> Group 2

70-75 -> Group 3

75-80 -> Group 4

Modified data and output:

Data for gender is given below:

Male Shoe Size Female Shoe Size

7 5

11 7.5

12 9

14 7

10.5 7.5

11 8

10 6.5

12 7

10.5 7.5

12 6.5

9.5 6

11.5 6.5

14 10

13.5 6.5

9.5 7

13 6

11 7

7.5

Output for t test is given below:

t-Test: Two-Sample Assuming Unequal Variances

  Male Shoe Size Female Shoe Size

Mean 11.29412 7.111111

Variance 3.251838 1.281046

Observations 17 18

Hypothesized Mean Difference 0 df27 t Stat 8.165111 P(T<=t) one-tail 4.53E-09 t Critical one-tail 1.703288 P(T<=t) two-tail 9.06E-09 t Critical two-tail 2.05183  

Data for height is given below:

Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4

6 6.5 7.5 14

6 6.5 9 14

5 7 7.5 13.5

6.5 7 11.5 7 7 7.5 6.5 8 7.5 7 10.5 9.5 11 10 11 12 12 9.5 10.5 10 13 12 11

Output for ANOVA test is given below:

Anova: Single Factor SUMMARY Groups Count Sum Average Variance Group 1 6 37 6.166667 0.466667 Group 2 11 90 8.181818 3.263636 Group 3 14 140.5 10.03571 3.671703 Group 4 3 41.5 13.83333 0.083333 ANOVA Source of Variation SS dfMS F P-value F critBetween Groups 140.3668 3 46.78893 16.9385 1.27E-06 2.922277

Within Groups 82.86851 30 2.762284 Total 223.2353 33        

Interpretation of results:

We can see from the t test that the P-value of the two tailed critical value is less than 0.05, so in this case we will reject the null hypothesis because p-value is less than the 5% level of significance. It means that there is a statistically significant difference in the population mean size of shoes for males and females.

From ANOVA table we can that the P-value is 0.000 which is less than 0.05, so in this case we also will reject the null hypothesis because p-value is less than the 5% level of significance. It means that there is a statistically significant difference in the population mean size of shoes among different height categories. At least one category has different mean from each other.

Conclusion and Recommendation:

We can conclude from the above analysis performed with respect to this data that there is a significant difference in the shoe size for gender as well as for height. Nkye Company needs to make shoes of different sizes. There is no way or no possibility to make one size of shoes because it varies with respect to gender and height.

Introduction to archaeology, questions

Introduction to Archeology:

Name:

Professor:

Institution:

Course:

Date:

According to Richard Reece, the Roman coins were “not happy” about being in the so called sacred spring. Why not?

The Roman coin was one of the substances that were derived from the exchange of goods and services. These coins were said to be one of the most valuable due to the fact that were made from silver, gold and bronze. The coins were not only used in Rome but in countries such as the Great Britain and Greece. Despite the high value that the coins heard, some of the authorities took advantage of their position by hoarding the coins so as to increase their value further. These made the lifestyles of the citizens in that they had to work harder to get the value equivalent to one coin. These were not the easiest times for the people of the Roman society due to the immense oppression that came with the search for the coin. This is why Reece states that the Roman coins were not happy (Howgego, 2007).

Later when the Roman coins and the metal work came to light, Guy de la Bedoyere and Mick Worthington felt the assemblage was “wrong”. Why?

The Roman coins and the metal work had been introduced to the people of Rome. This meant that they could enjoy the advantages that came with the coinage. Guy de la Bedoyerere and Mick Worthington however did put the credibility of the coins in that they differ from the original ones. The two archeologists argued that the original assembly of the coins differed from the original ones. This further implied that the original coins had been tempered with. Some of the ways in which they were tampered with was the quality, shape and texture of the new coin. This affected the general coinage of the new coin (Ando, 2000).

Why did the archeologists think the “Neolithic tomb” was a fake?

The Neolithic times consisted of tombs that consist of large rocks in nature. Most of the tombs created during this era posses the same qualities such as Stone Age and organized arrangement. The most recent discoveries on the Neolithic tombs were found in Ireland. These toms attracted an enormous amount of attention due to the controversy that came with their discovery. The tombs were said to be fake due to the way in which they were structured. The tombs are classified under passage tombs. Passage tombs have orthostatic characteristic that display the time in which they were drawn. These tombs however displayed armature orthostats that were supposed to make the tombs resemble the ancient tombs. This was exaggerated making the tombs subject for planted evidence which is not uncommon in the world of archeology (Malone, 2001)

There were three reasons why the archeologist believed the ‘Norman tower’ was a fake identify two

The Norman towers were fake due to the type of stone that are used to construct them. One of the reasons that support this notion is the fact that they are not built with genuine Kensington rune stone. The tower consists of modern stone that does not match the one of the prehistoric times.

Writers who wrote of the existence of the towers on several occasions wrote about non nonexistent features. Some of the components of the towers cannot be found to date. This displays that the towers were part of myths that were written to fuel the interests of the public (Adams, 2007).

According to the law of superposition, we know the Iron Age sword was placed in the ground at Llygadwy fairly recently. Explain?

The laws of superposition explain the arrangement of the rocks that are in existence. One of the reasons for this is to explain the age of the items found in the found. There are claims that the Iron Age sword was planted in the ground. This can be supported by the age of the soil which does not match with the age the discoverers claim the sword is. This sword is said to poses qualities of the Iron Age although the soil in the ground is younger than the stated time (Kelly & Thomas, 2010).

Adams, H. (2007). Mont-Saint-Michel and Chartres. Middlesex, UK: Echo Library.

Ando, C. (2000). Imperial ideology and provincial loyalty in the Roman Empire. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Howgego, C. (2007). Coinage and identity in the Roman provinces. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.

Kelly, R. L., & Thomas, D. H. (2010). Archaeology. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Malone, C. (2001). Neolithic Britain. Stroud: Tempus. Neolithic Britain. Stroud: Tempus.

Introduction to ASTR 1010L and the Solar System

Introduction to ASTR 1010L and the Solar System

Complete this lab before any other lab and ideally by 6/10/21

Object What are two main features or characteristics you observe on or about this object? What do you see that seems to be unique to this object?

Mercury It is rocky.

It is the smallest planet in the solar system. It is closest to the sun than any other planet.

Venus It is the hottest planet on the solar system.

It has a nearly round shape. It is covered with thick clouds.

Earth It is almost a sphere.

It has a solid surface. 70 percent of the earth’s surface is covered by water.

Mars It is rocky.

It has a thin atmosphere. Most of its surface is covered by red dust

Ceres It has a rocky inner core

It has a dusty outer crust It has an icy mantle.

Vesta It is almost spherical.

It is rocky and dense. It is separated into crust, mantle and core.

Mathilde It is very dark.

It has an albedo Not water or sign of hydrated features.

Gaspra It has several small craters.

Irregular in shape. Usually red and S-shaped.

Object Two observed features or characteristics Something unique

Jupiter Covered with clouds.

Has relatively low density. Its atmosphere is made up of mostly gases.

Saturn Less dense than all the planets.

It is covered by gases. Less dense than water.

Uranus Made up of water and other fluids.

It is blue in color because of the presence of methane in its atmosphere. It is the coldest planet.

Neptune It is dark and cold

It Is very windy It is the last planet.

Pluto It is rocky and icy.

It has a thin atmosphere It is heart-shaped

Earth’s Moon Its gravity influences the earth’s tides

Its bright at night. There is water in the moon.

Mars’ moons

Phobos and Deimos Irregular in shape.

Smaller compared to other moons. Look more like steroids than moons.

Jupiter’s moon

Io It has low density.

Crust mostly covered by ice It has its own magnetic field.

Jupiter’s

moon Ganymede It has a magnetosphere

Has a thin oxygen atmosphere. Largest moon in the solar system.

Saturn’s moon

Titan Covered by clouds

Crust with ice water. Contains largest seas

Saturn’s

moon Mimas Ovoid shaped.

Mostly composed of ice water Smallest moon.

Saturn’s moon

Iapetus Full of craters

Saturn’s largest moon Bright hemisphere

Uranus’

moon Miranda Its rocky.

Its inner core surrounded by ice. Orbit is inclined.

Pluto’s

moon Charon Large moon

Considered a dwarf moon. Its surfaces face each other.

Halley’s Comet Made of ice, gas and dust.

Bright and glowing appearance. It moves backward when orbiting.

Comet Hyakutake Long period comet

It passes close to the earth. It is the brightest comets.

Look at “The Planets To Scale” image. There are two really large planets, two medium sized, two small, and two very small!

Which FOUR planets are the terrestrial planets? (Terrestrial means Earth-like, which indicates that they have rocky surfaces and iron cores like the Earth – these planets do not have water on their surfaces or atmospheres like ours.)

Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars.

Go back and look at the picture of Venus in the Solar System Bodies collection. What do you think you’re seeing instead of the rocky surface?

Craters, volcanoes, lava plains and mountains.

Which FOUR planets are the giant planets?

Jupiter, Saturn, Neptune and Uranus

What are some similarities and some differences you notice among these four planets? Similarities:

They have more than one moon.

Made up of rock and hydrogen compounds.

Differences:

Main component of Neptune and Uranus is carbon, nitrogen and oxygen.

Main component of Jupiter and Saturn is Hydrogen and Helium.

Another great size comparison is seen in “Earth and Jupiter’s Great Red Spot To Scale”. We’ll study the Great Red Spot more in the Jupiter lab, but it’s basically a gigantic hurricane-like storm. Based on the pictures in the last few questions, how many times larger (across its equator) is Jupiter than the Earth?

Draw a sketch to help you remember. **If you are typing your answers, then sketch this on a piece of paper and either insert a photograph or scan of your sketch into this document or upload it separately.**

Jupiter is 11 times larger than earth

Look at “The Solar System As Seen From The Top”. Based on this diagram, what can you say is really different about asteroids and the comets (found in the Kuiper Belt) than the 8 planets?

While asteroids are made of metals and rock, comets are comprised ice and dust (Kanas, 2019). Asteroids and comets in the Kuiper Belt are larger than the asteroids and comets of the 8 other planets

What do you notice about the size of the planets relative to the amount of space in the solar system?

Inner planets including; Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars are smaller while outer planets such as Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Pluto are larger.

If you choose to do the Solar System Model Bonus Project, you will see that even those little dots are actually too big!

To compare to the moons, asteroids, and Pluto, look at both “The 15 Largest Objects in Our Solar System” and “The Not-Planets”.

Make observations about the sizes of the smaller terrestrial planets compared with the larger moons.

Smaller terrestrial planets such as Mars and Venus are quite smaller than other larger moons (Singer et al., 2021). The smallest terrestrial planet, mercury is 4879 km while the largest moon, Jupiter’s Ganymede is 5,268 km.

Make observations about the sizes of the smaller terrestrial planets compared with Pluto.

Pluto is larger than smaller terrestrial planets. They have larger number of satellites compared to terrestrial planets (Kanas, 2019). Unlike terrestrial planets which have solid surfaces, Pluto has no solid surface.

Make observations about the sizes of the asteroids Ceres and Vesta compared with the terrestrial planets and larger moons.

Some of the asteroids such as Ceres and Vesta are larger than terrestrial planets such as Mercury. They are quite similar to larger moons because of their size (Kanas, 2019). Some asteroids such as Vesta are larger than some moons such as Mathilde.

In comparison, Vesta is about 10 times the diameter of Mathilde (not in these diagrams but in the Solar System Objects), and most asteroids are even smaller!

The Kuiper Belt is the region of space around the Sun that holds the comets and Kuiper Belt objects. (Kuiper Belt objects are essentially just really big comets; Pluto is one of the two largest known Kuiper Belt objects.) Because they are so far from the Sun, comets and Kuiper Belt objects are made of not only rock and metal but also significant quantities of ice.

Look back at the pictures of the comets in the Solar System Objects. The photograph of Halley’s Comet shows its nucleus, which is the small icy/rocky part of the comet that is the responsible for the fuzzy coma (the round part in the lower left) and tail that you can see in the picture of Comet Hyakutake.

The nuclei of most comets are very small – Halley’s is pretty typical at 10 miles along its long axis, less than 1/3 the size of Mathilde – and yet the tails of a comet can easily stretch well over a million miles. The photograph of Halley’s Comet was taken by a spacecraft when the comet was close to its closest approach to the Sun. What do you think is happening to the comet to make the jets you can see in the left side of the picture?

The comet is orbiting round the sun hence making it stretch miles away and appear larger (Singer et al., 2021). However, when the comets are static, they appear smaller as they do not stretch (Kanas, 2019). As the comet orbits, it is drawn close to the sun and hence appears closer when captured by a spacecraft.

This is the kind of thing we will be doing for some of our labs – looking at pictures, learning about the objects, and then seeing what we can learn when we apply our knowledge to photographs of planetary surfaces.

Finally, to get a little feel for the rest of the universe, answer the following questions. You can do research online or in your lecture textbook.

What is a galaxy?

A galaxy is a system comprising of gas, dust, stars and their solar systems being held up by gravity.

What name do we give the galaxy we live in?

Milky Way Galaxy

Roughly sketch what a galaxy like ours looks like. **If you are typing your answers, then sketch this on a piece of paper and either insert a photograph or scan of your sketch into this document or upload it separately.**

Milky Way Galaxy

Approximately how many stars are in a galaxy like ours?

There are over 10 million stars scattered over our galaxy.

What is a light year?

It is the distance that light travels in vacuum in one year

How many light years away are we from the center of our galaxy?

We are 25,000 light years away from the center of our galaxy.

Show where the solar system is located (very roughly!) on your sketch of our galaxy (part c).

It located about 27,000 light years from the center of the galaxy.

Approximately how many galaxies are in our Local Group of Galaxies?

30 Galaxies.

What is the name of the other large spiral galaxy in the Local Group?

The Milky Way and the Andromeda Galaxy

How many light years away is that galaxy?

Over 70 million light years away.

Approximately how many galaxies are in our universe?

Over a trillion galaxies

How many light years away are the most distant galaxies?

13.4 billion light years.

How does this all make you feel!?

Our galaxy is complex and difficult to comprehend. It will take us several years to understand our galaxy.

References

Kanas, N. (2019). Our expanding solar system: Planets and moons. Solar System Maps, 141-192. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-0896-3_7Singer, K. N., Grundy, W. M., White, O. L., & Binzel, R. P. (2021). Introduction to Icarus special issue “Pluto system, Kuiper belt, and Kuiper belt objects”. Icarus, 356, 114269. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.icarus.2020.114269

Introduction to Business – BUSA 2115 – Fall 2020

Introduction to Business – BUSA 2115 – Fall 2020

Written Assignment: BUSINESS LETTER Paper

For this assignment, each student is required to write a 3-5 page business proposal. The assignment includes a 1-page cover letter and the body (2-4 pages) of the letter. The cover letter is an executive summary of your proposal. The body contains the details of your proposal. Remember, you are providing this to a busy executive, so be concise and to the point with your information. Be sure and give rationale for your recommendations. This is an individual assignment. Your written assignment (BUSINESS LETTER) will be rubric graded.  Please review the rubric before you complete the assignment. Please use APA or MLA format for your paper.

The premise of your assignment:

You are a manager in the marketing, strategic planning, or operational department of an American company – you choose the company (real or imaginary) and your department. You have received an assignment from the CEO of your company to find new opportunities to improve the sales and the market share of your company, either in the US or abroad.

This assignment includes creating a written proposal of these new opportunities. In this proposal, you need to write (1) a business cover letter and (2) an attachment containing the detailed proposal. The proposal should address the following items: your company, the business type of your proposal, the marketing strategy, the marketing mix, the financial status, and the goals.

In this paper you need to demonstrate knowledge of basic business concepts and managerial functions in a business context. In your paper you will identify some key components of a business plan. You may choose to propose to your CEO to partner with (or purchase) another company. If so, please provide your plan to attract your prospective business partner.

Grading Rubric for BUSINESS LETTER Assignment

Description Pts Score

Cover Letter: Demonstrate knowledge of key concepts and business terminology learned in class. Use correct and complete format of a business letter consisting of 6 essential parts; use either APA or MLA format

Post completed assignment in COUGARVIEW 25 Attachment Describe your company 5 Describe your proposal 15 Explain your marketing strategy10 Describe your marketing mix of 4Ps 20 Describe your financial status and goals 15 Readability – were there sentences or sections that did not fit, make sense, or stay on course with the paper itself? Other minor errors in word usage, spelling, grammar etc. 10 Submit paper by deadline – 10 points deducted per day late TOTAL POSSIBLE POINTS: 100 YOUR SCORE: _______________

Business Letter

1. Demonstrate knowledge of key concepts and terminology learned in class.

Highlight any terms or concepts from the textbook. You can use any method you choose to highlight your terms. I simply want to see that you have used proper and appropriate business terms.

2. Describe your company.

This is like the Company Profile of the Case Assignment you have already completed.

3. Describe your business proposal.

What type of new business opportunity or opportunities are you going to propose for your company? Is your proposal for a sale or purchase? Manufacture or licensing or franchising? Joint venture or wholly owned operation? Feel free to be creative and pursue any of the concepts you have learned in this course. There is no single “right answer” for this type of assignment. It always depends on your proposal for pursuing this new business opportunity.

4. Explain your marketing strategy

Please provide a clear explanation of your marketing strategy for your business proposal, which should include your target market and the appropriate marketing mix to satisfy the target market.

5. Describe your marketing mix of 4Ps.

You need to address 4Ps of the marketing mix (product, price, placement, and promotion) for your proposal.

6. Describe your financial status and goals

You need to address the financial status of your company and your financial goals along with your business proposal.

APPENDIX – Rubric for the BUSINESS LETTER Paper

Criteria Exceeds expectations

(90-100%: A) Meets expectations

(80-89%: B) Does not meet expectations (less than 70%: C) Fail to meet expectations (less than 69%: D or less)

Cover Letter

(30 points) The cover letter uses the correct and complete form for a business letter. A business letter contains the six essential parts: heading, inside address, salutation, body, closing, and signature. The description provides the six parts in general but not in clear and professional manners. The description provides a few of the six parts not in clear and professional manners.

The description fails to provide a business letter in clear and professional manners.

Demonstrate knowledge of key concepts and terminology of business. (10 points) Descriptions use knowledge, concepts, and terminology from the class to describe the business letter and proposal: in the attachment parts, descriptions cite specific chapters from the textbook when using terms and or ideas: descriptions are very theoretical and analytical; statements are quantitatively enough. Descriptions use knowledge, concepts, and terminology from the class to describe the business letter and proposal, but not completely: descriptions are simple and descriptive; statements are quantitatively not enough. Descriptions need to use much more the knowledge, concepts, and terminology from the class to describe the business letter and proposal: descriptions are not academic; statements need more quantitatively. Descriptions fail to address the assigned items in effect in quantity as well as quality.

Describe your company (10 points) The profile includes all parts of a company profile such as history, vision and missions, CEO, product lines, organizational structure, supply chains, employees, financial statements, competitors and current issues; descriptions are very theoretical; the contents are quantitatively enough. Descriptions follow the guide but not enough in terms of the number of the items: the profile includes the information on the company, but not sufficiently or correctly; descriptions are simple; the contents are quantitatively not enough. The profile does not include all of the information on the company; descriptions are not academic; contents are quantitatively too brief and superficial. Descriptions fail to address the assigned items in effect in quantity as well as quality.

Describe the business type of your proposal. (10 points) Descriptions clarify a business type for the proposal with explanation on the benefits and costs on both sides of the business partners; it explores the alternative business types, and how it is determined in terms of optimum solution: descriptions are very theoretical and analytical; statements are quantitatively sufficient. Descriptions contain a business type for the proposal with explanation on the benefits and costs on both sides of the business partners, but not complete and clear; it explores the alternative business types, and how it is determined, but not completely: descriptions are simple and general; statements are quantitatively not sufficient. Descriptions do not clearly explain about the business type properly and explore few of the alternatives: descriptions are not academic; statements need more quantitatively. Descriptions fail to address the assigned items in effect in quantity as well as quality.

Explain your marketing strategy (10 points) Descriptions clarify a marketing strategy for the proposal with explanation on the pros and cons on both sides of the business partners; it explores the alternative marketing strategies, and how it is determined in terms of optimum solution: descriptions are very theoretical and analytical; statements are quantitatively sufficient. Descriptions contain a marketing strategy with explanation on the pros and cons on both sides of the business partners, but not complete and clear; it explores the alternative marketing strategies, and how it is determined, but not completely: descriptions are simple and general; statements are quantitatively not sufficient. Descriptions do not clearly explain about the marketing strategy properly and explore few of the alternatives: descriptions are not academic; statements need more quantitatively. Descriptions fail to address the assigned items in effect in quantity as well as quality.

Describe your marketing mix of 4Ps (10 points) Descriptions explain well about the 4Ps of marketing mix of your company product and business and provide an analysis for the alternatives; descriptions are very theoretical and empirically deep and accurate in information; contents are quantitatively sufficient. Descriptions contain the 4Ps of marketing mix of your company product and business and provide an analysis for the alternatives, but not completely and not enough in terms of the number of the items: descriptions need to be more theoretical and deeper empirically; contents are quantitatively not sufficient. Descriptions do not follow the guide in items: descriptions are not academic; descriptions lack significantly the analysis; contents are quantitatively too brief and superficial. Descriptions fail to address the assigned items in effect in quantity as well as quality.

Describe your financial status and goals (10 points) Descriptions specify a complete information on the financial status of your company; an analysis on the financial statements is addressed; then the financial goals from the business proposal is described; descriptions are very theoretical; the contents are quantitatively enough. Descriptions specify some information on the financial status of your company and provide an analysis on the financial statements, but not complete and correct; the financial goals from the business proposal is described, but not sufficiently or correctly; descriptions are simple; the contents are quantitatively not enough. Descriptions specify the information on the financial status of your company and the financial goals poorly and incorrectly; descriptions are not academic; contents are quantitatively too brief and superficial. Descriptions fail to address the assigned items in effect in quantity as well as quality.

Readability – were there sentences or sections that did not fit, make sense, or stay on course with the paper itself?

Other minor errors in word usage, spelling, grammar etc.

(10 points) 4 points

Sentences and sections are completely fit, make sense, or stay on course with the paper itself and few minor errors in word usage, spelling, grammar, etc; contents are quantitatively sufficient. 3 points

Sentences and sections are not completely fit, make sense, or stay on course with the paper itself and minor errors in word usage, spelling, grammar, etc; quantity of contents is not enough. 2 points

Sentences and sections are not fit, not make sense, nor stay on course with the paper itself and many errors in word usage, spelling, grammar, etc; contents are quantitatively too short. Descriptions fail to address the assigned items in effect in quantity as well as quality.

TOTAL POSSIBLE POINTS: 90-100 80-89 70- 79 Less than 70

 

Introduction to Criminology

Introduction to Criminology

Question 1

Classical criminology

Punishment for wrongdoing should have a pre-established balance with the crime committed, meaning that punishment imposed for murder should not be equal to rape or lesser forms of delinquency (Siegel 10). In classical criminology, people are free to choose lawful solutions to solve their challenges, crime is appealing if it has big befits with small effort, and crime is controlled by the fright of punishment. Also, very strict consequences for crime and similar forms of punishment discourage criminal behavior.

Positivist criminology

In this view, positivist criminology challenges classical criminology and focuses on the cause of crime (Siegel 11). To explain criminal behavior, the positivists use scientific methodology, social factors, physical factors, and biological attributes.

Sociological criminology

Sociological criminology focuses on the major social changes taking place in society (Siegel 12). People in society are very different and use criminal behavior to meet their demands. It is difficult for society to remain without criminal behavior since human petty vices would be uplifted to crimes.

Conflict criminology

Conflict criminology emphasizes that crime result from human conflict and interpersonal conflicts shapes human behavior (Siegel 13). People’s lives rotate around the means of production, the way people produce goods affects their character.

Question 1 A.

Positivist criminology developed in the nineteenth century and it presented an innovative way on the cause of crime. People pass through different stages as a way of understanding the world (Siegel 11). For instance, in the early stages societies believed that lifeless objects like the sun have a life while in late social stages societies accept science. The reason I chose this perspective is because in comparison to other perspectives, positive criminology is more applicable to modern life, as it focuses on the motive of committing a crime to determine the punishment for crimes committed. The scientific analyses of the crimes ensure justice is served to both parties since every party is considered including the accused.

Question 1 B.

Positivist criminology examines human behavior scientifically to determine if one is a criminal (Siegel 11). For example, a study on the facial appearance of criminals found that the shape of nose ears, and eyes were related to antisocial behavior. Furthermore, studies on abnormality found that anomaly of the human mind is associated with criminal behavior. Criminals have features that differentiate them from non-criminals. Lombroso’s study found that there were born criminals who had teeth common to carnivores (Siegel 11). People with such features are more prone to criminal behavior compared to non-criminals

Question 2

Criminal justice is made up of all of the bodies in a government that have the mandate to enforce the law, adjudicate crime, and correct criminal conduct (Siegel 19). Crime justice experts develop effective programs for crime prevention. Criminal justice is primarily an instrument of social monitoring and control. It is used to enforce wat society considers acceptable behavior. Agencies of justice, who form part of the criminal justice system, prevent social harms through apprehension, trying, and convicting criminals. Therefore, the criminal justice system has all the power to control crime as well as punish law breakers.

On the other hand, criminology is concerned with identifying the cause, nature, extent, and control of criminal behavior using scientific means (Siegel 4). Criminologists also are concerned with the operation of agencies’ justice and their influence on criminals, including how policies affect crime rates and trends. Criminology is primarily a study of crime, its various forms and triggers, including what may lead to increased or increased trends given different factors. Therefore, criminology is just an academic discipline that relies on science to provide meaningful interpretation of crime and criminal patterns.

Works Cited

Siegel, L. “Criminology: The core: Cengage learning.” (2019).

Introduction to Philosophy

Introduction to Philosophy

Student’s Name

Course

Date

Question 1

The categorical imperative, according to a German philosopher, Kant, is a formal procedure to evaluate any action performed as to whether it could be morally upright. According to Kant, the categorical imperative follows the rule that one should only justify an action to be ethical if that act could be generalized as a universal law. Thus, the categorical imperative is an objective, necessary rational principle that must always be followed despite any desire to do the contrary. The strengths of the categorical imperative include the universal acceptability of legal action. All human beings are seen as rational beings who would act in the same way because it is deemed the right thing to do so. Also, the CI is impartial since the actions categorized as moral are not guided by freewill but by general respect to the dignity of fellow humans. More so, the imperatives are based on reason and logic, which determines human behavior and choice. However, the CI has some weaknesses, such as lack of motivation, in realizing that something is irrational. There is also a conflicting duty in choosing the right way to follow based on the general acceptance of an issue (Lecture: Predominate Ethical Theories).

Utilitarianism is the ethical doctrine that suggests that actions are right if they are beneficial to the majority. It places the definition of right and wrong basically on the consequences of the work. For instance, killing a thief who would have made a large group of people to suffer is justifiable since the majority of the people will not suffer after his death. Among the strengths of this ethical approach is that it emphasizes on happiness, which is the aim of life for most people. Also, it is pragmatic in that it focuses on the consequences of an action. Besides, it is easy to follow since the consideration is whether the move will lead to happiness or suffering among the majority of people. However, utilitarianism may not be able to predict the consequence of an action before the action occurs. For example, would killing that thief lead to grief in his family? Or, would his death cause hatred among the killer and the thief’s society? Also, happiness is not easily defined as what makes one person happy may not make another happy as well. Therefore, I think the Kantian theory is better than utilitarianism because it focuses on the universality of an issue.

Question two

The pro-choice issue on abortion includes those people that buy the idea that abortion should be legalized. The pro-choice individuals believe that each woman has a right to decide what goes on in their body (lecture notes, abortion). According to Judith Jarvis Thomson, abortion is allowed in some instances and not in others. On one side, she argues that life starts at conception, and thus abortion is bringing an end to it. However, she also describes the right to life as not be unjustly killed, which in this case, abortion is no injustice to the unborn. She came up with some analogies like the case where a famous violist is hooked to another person for survival without the latter’s consent. If the person decides to detach the violist from his body, he will die to lack of support. However, it is morally right to determine what goes on with your body. And thus, detaching the violin would not be ethically correct. According to Beverly Harrison, the right to abortion helps in preventing class dominance. That is, if made illegal, rich women would still be able to pay, unlike the poor ones.

 On the other hand, John T. Noonan claims that personhood begins at conception, and changes follow after that. Therefore it would be wrong to commit abortion as it is seen as bringing an end to that development. He claims that the fetus holds the same life as a grown-up individual, and thus abortion is considered murder. Other pro-life activists support his argument and dictates that the government should have a say when it comes to abortion. The third approach to abortion is where a person can be both a pro-choice and pro-life. For instance, one may believe that abortion is terrible but refrain from warning people against it. A woman would be against abortion on a religious basis but allow another one to perform it on medical grounds.

Question 3

The phrase that ‘existence precedes essence’ is a central claim of existentialism, which means that personality is not built on a precise purpose, but rather, it is the choice of humans to engage in the use. According to existentialists, humans create their values by determining the meaning of their lives. Thus, it is the nature or essence of humans that lead to their existence. The idea that presence comes before essence is well explained by the philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre. However, the phrase, ‘essence precedes existence,’ is the traditional view that shows the selfishness of humans and that they are rational beings.

Sartre believes in the first phase of existence precedes essence. He believes that people are defined by what they surround themselves with, and thus, a difficult situation is only intolerable because the people allow it to be so. The feeling is evident through his claim that the world is a reflection of our freedom, where he meant that the world triggers people to react. To criticize the other phrase, Sartre claims that man first exists, establishes himself, fits in the world, and then defines his life afterward. Therefore, there is no way that the essence of a man would come before his existence. I agree with Sartre’s claim that ‘existence precedence essence.’ The reason for my choice is that for you to realize your nature and importance in life, you must first be in that life. Humans learn of different life aspects as they grow and interact with each other, thus increasing their value. Also, people are only defined (essence) according to their actions, for which they are responsible. Therefore, it is like humans to choose what to do and what not to do. For instance, for a person to be described as having an essence of being cruel, they must have shown cruelty in their behavior (Existentialism lecture). I believe that a person can choose not to be evil, and thus, it is not in their nature to be good or bad.

Question 4

Thomas Hobbes, in his Leviathan theory, suggests that human beings are motivated by the need to preserve themselves. He claims that naturally, people would do anything to maintain their life, which is short, poor, and nasty. Also, he claims that humans are motivated by the desire to gain, and that is why they are competitive and violent. Due to these perceptions, humans need a central government to control their desires by placing no space for the unjust. Similar to Socrates, Hobbes believes that political sensitivity is has been overtaken by liberalism. He also states that men will always strive for peace when they are treated as equals since they want to outdo each other. Nature treats all men equally, and therefore the government has a role of ensuring peace between men as they strive to be better than each other.

On the other hand, Jean-Jacques Rousseau described human beings as compassionate beings who are moral naturally. However, they adapt to changes in the pre-existing urban chaos and lose their natural compassion when subjected to the urge for money. Humans are prone to corruption to satisfy their greed for wealth and power. Therefore, the state is a collection of individuals who aspire to instill the morals in its people. The general will of the country is to determine the right from wrong and is established through laws. The public will of the state is created through the majority will of the people. Therefore, people rely on the government for peaceful co-existence and to prevent greed from overtaking their natural goodwill.

References

Dr. John Tamilio III, Lecture Notes: Abortion.

Existentialism lecture, A Brief Introduction to Existentialism Retrieved from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5HhGRfxH81M&t=2s.

Prof. John Tamilio III, Ph.D., Lecture: Predominate Ethical Theories

Next Gen Technologies

Introduction.The aviation industry is undergoing through radical changes. This is in a bid to improve on security, cut production and running costs, becoming environmentally friendly, reducing travelling time and improving on service delivery. These changes are done to have an edge over the competitors in the industry while maintaining client satisfaction. In the United States, changes in the aviation industry are being put in place already. There is the development of the Next Generation Air Transport System (Next Gen). This is the name given to a new National Airspace System which is going to be implemented across the nation between the year 2012 and 2025 in stages. This paper is going to look at the technology, system and components of next generation aircrafts.

Next Gen Technologies.In a bid to realize the goals of National Airspace System (NAS), there has been a lot of modeling and remodeling of aircraft improvements. Technology is being pushed to the limit as it was evidenced by the manufacture of Concorde aircrafts. These crafts are take three hours to make a flight from New York to London while a normal aircraft takes a whooping seven hours. There has been a need to even reduce further the three hours taken by Concorde planes. This has led to the development of X-51A Wave Rider aircraft which flies unmanned and could take one hour to fly between New York and London. It is said that technology used in the Wave Rider aircraft could be used in next generation military aircrafts, space aircrafts and passenger planes too. All this is to save time taken to travel between locations.

In order to be within the set environmental limits, technology has been employed to tackle the issues mostly noise pollution. Over the years, there has been production of better and quieter turbine engines that are high performing and improved fuel consumers. There has also been the emergence of aircrafts that are light in weight. This has been possible by the use of strong light weight plastics and composite materials instead of metal. Light aircrafts reduce fuel consumption thus saving of money. There are plans to come up with technology that aims at improving fuel efficiency by 60% or 70%.

Plans are under way to develop engines that are run by bio-fuel. This is being worked on in order to comply with regulations that stipulate the amount of carbon emission airlines are allowed to release in the atmosphere. If such engines are developed and prove to be a success, then huge costs will be cut from buying fuel as bio-fuel is cheaper compared to petroleum.

Next Gen System.Currently, the air traffic control system used in America is the ground-based system which is being termed as old. All countries in the world use this system to guide air traffic in their respective air spaces. Next Gen however, has proposed the use of satellite-based system. This system will use Global Positioning System (GPS). This system helps pinpoint positions of anything in the world with utmost accuracy. It is being used in mobile phones, vehicles among other fields. Its introduction in the aviation industry will mean air routes will be shortened hence saving of fuel and time, there will be reduced air traffic delays and air traffic controllers will have the ability to control aircrafts with greater safety margins compared to today.

Next Gen projects to use the GPS system in aircrafts by the year 2020. This will allow pilots to choose their own flight paths. Pilots will also know their positions in relation to other planes thus the ability of many flights taking place close to one another and yet evade collision. The system will also aid in transfer of information regarding weather conditions. This is important information to aviation players as it helps predict weather conditions in planned routes. In general GPS system will lead to faster flying, better landing, improved navigation in different weather conditions and better running of airports.

Next Gen Components.There are five components in Next Gen and they include;

System Wide Information Management (SWIM); This system will provide a platform for one information system to avail data to many users and applications by reducing the number and types of system and interface. It will reduce redundancy of data and facilitate multi user information sharing thus new ways of decision making due to ease of information accessibility.

Next Generation Data Communications; Voice communication form the large base of communication between aircrew and traffic control, and between air traffic controllers. Incorporation of data communication will add to the two way communication for instructions, advisories, flight crew request, reports and air traffic control. This will enable air traffic controllers handle more traffic, enhance safety and capacity and improve productivity.

Next Generation Enabled Weather. (NNEW); Majority of air delays are related to weather. The goal of NNEW is to reduce these delays by merging the many different weather observatories and sensors from the ground, those that are airborne and from space into a single national weather information system which will be updated in real time. It will provide a common weather picture and report in the national airspace system which ill translate to better decision making and air travel.

NAS Voice Switch. (NVS); There are seventeen different voice switching systems being used now. NVS aims at replacing these systems with one ground-ground and air-ground voice communication system. This is meant to bring uniformity in aviation communication.

Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast (ADS-B); This surveillance broadcast will use the global positioning system to provide pilots and air traffic controllers with information that will aid in the safety of aircrafts while flying and taxiing in the runways. It will be achieved by the mounting of transponders on the planes to receive signals that will help determine the aircrafts position in the sky in relation to other air traffic. These signals and other data will be relayed to pilots and air traffic controllers at the same time thus improvement in air safety.

Conclusion.In order to achieve objectives of National Air Space, there has to be increased funding and support from the government and all stake holders. This will lead to the realization of set goals within the stipulated time. The duration of time taken to merge both mid-term and long-term goals should be reduced in order to speed up the actualization of goals and maintain consistency. Achievements made so far have proved that anything is possible thus the need for people and players in this quest to have faith in proposals made towards any goal of NAS.

Knowledge of the environment is very important for all

Introduction:

Knowledge of the environment is very important for all. the course allows me to understand the different aspects of the science fundamentals related to environment , the different biomes and the diversity and how water management can help to preserve the diverse features of land water mass. Energy is a very important source of life and a discussion on the different kinds of energy allows one to understand why they have to be preserved and the reason why man has to look at alternate sources of energy .a discussion of different units helps us to understand environmental science better.

Energy Matter and Cycles: The energy sources are said to have been split into three ways: that is the fossil fuels, the renewable sources, and the nuclear sources. The fossil fuels thus include coal, petroleum, and natural gas. The renewable energy sources are the solar, wind, hydroelectric, biomass, and geothermal power. There are many ways where the abundance of energy can be stored, converted, and amplified for the benefit. The key energy sources play an important role in the future. The main reason where the energy needs to be cycled is by the living things which we generally put matter through requiring energy. It takes energy to turn a sugar into protein. The reason life is able to exist on Earth is that we have a constant input of energy from the Sun. Photosynthetic life is being formed to harvest the Sun’s energy, and thus the other organisms could basically steal their energy by eating them.

Science fundamentals are termed to be simple processes at surfaces and the complex materials and systems, the youngest planets and the oldest galaxies. Our aim is to discover the fundamental laws of nature and their creativity to the problems of industry, health and the hydrogen economy. Some of the University has a centuries-old record with the research in mathematics, the physical sciences and astronomy. Fundamentals of Science provide the basic knowledge for a whole range of practical uses and applications which can be used to address issues faced by mankind in treating scientific expositions especially regarding the origin and life and universe .

Biomes are climatically and geographically defined as similar climatic conditions on the Earth, such as communities of plants, animals, and soil organisms, and are often referred to as ecosystems. There are certain parts which exhibit the same kinds of biotic characteristics and are hence called as biomes . Biomes are known very particularly by the flora such as structures of plants, structure types , types of leaves and also by the way the plants are paced like savannah, woodlands ,shrubs etc. biomes are neither genetically the same not do they exhibit taxonomic similarities .Biomes are very important in studying the ergonomical habitat of the flora and of other natural landscapes such as . ponds, trees, streams, creeks, and burrows in the sand or soil.

Biodiversity is the term given to the variety of life on Earth and the natural patterns where it forms. The biodiversity is shaped by natural processes and, by the influence of humans. It forms the web of life in an integral part. This diversity is often understood in terms of the wide variety of plants, animals and microorganisms. There are huge base of nearly 1.75 million creatures that inhabit the earth. Scientists take the actual count at about 13 million species. The very important aspect of biodiversity rests on the truth that despite having so many different species there is a natural collection of all of them in some kind existing together. The sequencing and chronological order of the arrangement of every specie within it sub species has allowed for a wide interaction and arrangement of the two . There has been examples of bio diversity between crops and livestock .the life building blocks of the DNA and the chromosomes have identified and taken care of the different natural specie characteristic and trait . Biodiversity is seen widely in many different kinds of natural habitat where the biotic and the abiotic environment interact with each other ot form a community whre mankind has found himself to flourish.

Water Management generally offers products, services and water solutions that increase the efficiency of water that create water savings for customers worldwide.  It usually takes to develop and deliver location specific water solutions. Water Management has been involved in water projects by way of utilizing the best efficient technologies and thus supports companies in many market sectors. Using our knowledge and understanding of water efficiency to develop a full-circle strategy actively reduces the usage. Water Management can thus help in managing water for the indoor use to outdoor uses.

Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods. It may be a change in average weather conditions, or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions. Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes such as oceanic circulation, biotic processes, variations in solar radiation received by Earth, “climate change” is often used to describe human-specific impacts. Air pollution is the introduction into the atmosphere of chemicals, particulates, or biological materials that cause discomfort, disease, or death to humans, damage other living organisms such as food crops, or damage the natural environment or built environment. The atmosphere is a complex dynamic natural gaseous system that is said as essential to support life on planet Earth. The emissions from different kinds of machinery and other activities used to make man’s life easier and the other technological innovation have led to ozone depletion and led to global warming which has been recognized as a threat to human health as well as to the Earth’s ecosystems.

Conventional energy sources include oil, gas and coal. These conventional sources are usually fossil fuels. Their use leads to increased greenhouse gas emissions and other environmental damage. Conventional energy sources cannot be renewed and hence have to be preserved . The conventional sources of energy are generally non-renewable sources of energy, which are being used since a long time. These sources of energy are being used extensively in such a way that their known reserves have been depleted to a great extent. At the same time it is becoming increasingly difficult to discover and exploit their new deposits. As per records and the availability of gas, the reserves of oil will be depleted in a few decades and coal reserves too. Alternate sources of energy will have to found out as coal, petroleum, natural gas and electricity are conventional sources of energy.

Alternative energy is said to be one of an energy source that is said to be an alternative to fossil fuel.  These alternatives are said to be intended to address about fossil fuels. What constitutes the nature of an alternative energy source has changed considerably over time, as have controversies regarding energy use. Because of the variety of energy choices and differing goals of their advocates, defining some energy types as “alternative” is highly controversial. In a general sense, alternative energy as it is currently conceived is that which is produced or manufactured without using any fossil fuel. Alternate sources of energy refer to all those naturally used sources which do not have carbon emissions contributing to global warming . 

Conclusion:

An understanding of the different kinds of energy that the nature has in store is slowly being depleted and hence careful conservation of the same is needed and the environment needs to be studied and preserved very carefully.

References:

aeckersberg.weebly.com/uploads/5/8/3/9/…/sp7_-_chapter_2.pdf

www.cbd.int/2010/biodiversity/www.environment.tn.nic.in/SoE/images/WasteManagement.pdf retrieved from home.utah.edu/~ptt25660/tran.html‎

www.environmentalleader.com/category/conventional-energy/‎

www.epa.gov/climatechange/‎ www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/airpollution.html‎

www.watermgt.com/‎

www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/glossary/gloss5/biome

Types of Ecosystem

Introduction:

National science foundation (NSF) in 1980 established The Long Term Ecological Research (LTER) Network to conduct research ecological issues that can last decades and span huge geographical areas.

The Network brings together a multi-disciplinary group of more than 2000 scientists and graduate students. The 26 LTER sites encompass diverse ecosystems in the continental United States, Alaska, Antarctica and islands in the Caribbean and the Pacific.

LTER is an international best organized and most successful groups conducting research in ecology. The aim of the LTER is to pursue a long-term research on based on long-term data and information which is necessary for truly understanding environmental phenomena.

27717756096026 Sites of LTER:

Andrews Forest LTER (AND)

Arctic LTER (ARC)

Baltimore Ecosystem Study (BES)

Bonanza Creek LTER (BNZ)

California Current Ecosystem LTER (CCE)

Cedar Creek LTER (CDR)

Central Arizona – Phoenix LTER (CAP)

Coweeta LTER (CWT)

Florida Coastal Everglades LTER (FCE)

Georgia Coastal Ecosystems LTER (GCE)

Harvard Forest LTER (HFR)

Hubbard Brook LTER (HBR)

Jornada Basin LTER (JRN)

Kellogg Biological Station LTER (KBS)

Konza Prairie LTER (KNZ)

LTER Network Office (LNO)

Luquillo LTER (LUQ)

McMurdo Dry Valleys LTER (MCM)

Moorea Coral Reef LTER (MCR)

Niwot Ridge LTER (NWT)

North Temperate Lakes LTER (NTL)

Palmer Antarctica LTER (PAL)

Plum Island Ecosystems LTER (PIE)

Santa Barbara Coastal LTER (SBC)

Sevilleta LTER (SEV)

Shortgrass Steppe (SGS)

Virginia Coast Reserve LTER (VCR)

Among 26 LTER sites The California Current Ecosystem (CCE) would be described here.

3714750258445California Current Ecosystem (CCE):

Location:

CCE LTERs is located off the southern coast of California, extending from San Diego north to San Luis Obispo and westward over 500 km. 

Geographical location is

Latitude: 32.90

Longitude: 102.30

Types of Ecosystem:

California Current system is a coastal upwelling biome and it is coastal pelagic ecosystem.CCE includes eastern current (California current) of North pacific gyre. This currents circulate water around the North Pacific Ocean. In this current, wind acts on sea surface and it facilitates the upward movement of nutrient rich deepwater so that surface dwellers can take this nutrient. This process is known as coastal upwelling. Upwelling ecosystems are most productive ecosystems. The CCE sustains active fisheries for a variety of marine invertebrates ,finfish and aquatic animals, modulates hydrologic cycle ,weather patterns of most of the west coast of United States, and plays a vital role in the economy of myriad coastal communities.

Area of interest: why this site has chosen

It is an ideal location of LTER because it has 5 decades of climate context provided by the calCOFI (California Cooperative Oceanic Fisheries Investigations). The location of this site is in a bigeographic boundary where climate change is very rapid. Within this small geographic area there is a pronounced spatial gradient and its anoxic basins provide a unique connection to paleoceanographic studies; and the extant 4-D physical ocean circulation model of the region will permit rapid advances in the development of coupled bio-physical models of ecosystem transitions. LTER network can compare the coastal pelagic upwelling ecosystem with other biomes in respect to primary production pattern and control, of inorganic inputs and movements of nutrients patterns, Spatial and temporal distribution of populations selected to represent trophic structures, , and disturbances frequency and pattern.

Types of researches have been done and going on:

California Cooperative Oceanic Fisheries Investigations (CalCOFI) has studied the CCE LTER site over 60 years. Scientists have observed changes in the CCE that happen over a variety of time scales. The changes include the Pacific Decadal Oscillation, and El Niños which results in long term ocean warming trend that has been documented over the past 6 decades. The Pacific Decadal Oscillation includes a series of warming and cooling periods that occur in 20-30-year cycles.  El Ninos is a periodic change of ocean atmosphere which includes increased ocean temperatures and decreased upwelling in the equatorial Pacific Ocean.

 The main purpose of this site is to built up a bio-physical model for understanding and forecasting the consequences of El Niño and low-frequency climate forcing on pelagic ecosystems of the California Current and similar biomes.

Research Focus

Study of four mechanisms that may lead to rapid shifts in the California Current Ecosystem:

Observation of changes in the food web in response to changes in ocean stratification and the supply of nutrients

Transport of several organisms along the coast from the northern to the southern part of the California Current system (and vice versa).

Transport of organisms from the coast to regions located far offshore. Currents transport coastal species offshore away from their preferred habitat and this result in destruction of marine ecosystem.

Changes in predation.

The researches in the CCE- LTER site are based on following processes:

Experimental Process Studies:

This study focuses on the stratification of the water column and its effect on the food web. Stratification prevents the movement of nutrient reach water to the sea surface where the nutrients are needed for the growth of microscopic algae called phytoplankton. Amount of stratification varies across time and space. Researchers focus on the change of stratification across space. Divergences in the amount of nutrients of phytoplankton at different depths and in different places may cause species variation. Cyanobacteria which are the producer of the ocean’s food web are inhabited in the boundary between nutrient rich deep water and nutrient poor surface water. CCE LTER scientists are conducting studies to know the effect of ocean stratification on the Cyanobacteria and other organisms.

Time Series Studies:

 Time series is a group of repeated, scientific measurements performed in the same place but at different times. CCE LTER usually takes 4 types of time series.

First type: measurements made at sea four times a year , and examine oceanic microbes organic matter dissolved in sea water concentration of several metal like iron, which is essential nutrient for marine plants and algae.

Second type: use satellite observation to measure pigments produced by phytoplankton and sea surface temperature.

Third type: uses more frequent measurements of phytoplankton and ocean temperature made at near shore sites including the Scripps pier, other locations along the coast in a network called the Southern California Coastal Ocean Observing Systems (SCCOOS), and the Ocean Institute at Dana Point.

Fourth type: robotic ocean gliders are used to make continuous measurements across the CCE region.

Modeling studies:

Computer models are used to interpret and understand the observation which is made during experiments. Information system contains the data from the various components of the CCE-LTER and allows researchers to access and combine all of those data. An Ocean Informatics electronic hub at the Integrative Oceanography Division (IOD) at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography control all the documentation and data associated with the CCE-LTER projects

Researchers involved:

Mark D. Ohman (SIO), Peter franks (SIO), Steven Bogard (PFEL), James E. Conners (SIO), Peter Davison (SIO) and many others.

Conclusion:

There are many categories of stressors affecting the overall condition of the California Current ecosystem. This range includes traditional activities such as coastal development, fishing and emerging industries (shipping, renewable energy, desalination), the proliferation of land-based pollutants, and accelerating climate change. This stressor vigorously effects the marine population and marine ecosystem. Increase surface Temperature influences rates of metabolism and affects the range limits of many marine organisms. Scientists and researchers have shown that over the course of the past 60 years concentrations of dissolved oxygen have varied substantially. Periods of lower oxygen (hypoxia) reduce the vertical extent of habitable ocean for a variety of invertebrates and marine fishes and, while the habitable volume expands during intervals of higher dissolved oxygen (McClatchie et al. 2010). For the past 25 years gradual decline of dissolved oxygen has raised concerns about loss and compression of habitat for some commercially important rockfish such as the cowcod (Bograd et al. 2008).one study has shown that over past 60 years a group of marine zooplankton known as salps has been declined (Lavaniegos and Ohman 2007).Salps are very small celled suspension feeder and efficient grazer of phytoplankton and are important vectors that help repackage organic carbon and other compounds into a form that sediments quickly to the deep sea floor. Thus long-term carbon sequestration in the deep sea odd California may be altered by the decline in salps population. Another study has shown that the transparency of the California Current System has decreased slowly, but progressively over the past 6 decades (Aksnes and Ohman 2009). Seawater transparency plays a major role in controlling “encounter distance” at which visually-hunting predators like seabirds, fish, and some marine mammals can detect prey. The sustainability of some consumers that occupy the middle and upper levels of ocean food webs may be affected by deciline in encounter distance due to decrease in transparency of sea water.

Now scientist are not only trying to protect the California Current but also working to restore vitality and resilience in such a dynamic and changing system.

Reference:

http://cce.lternet.eduhttp://www.packard.org