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TEST III

Intro to PhilTEST IIIEd AimanPart I: Multiple Choice-Choose the best answer: 3 points each

1. For Nietzsche what has Christianity and Plato done to us?

Made us all peaceful, warless people, never killing others for religious reasons.

Saved us from a life of sin.

Made us into guilt ridden impotent wimps.

Shown us the way to enlightenment.

Answer

Made us into guilt-ridden impotent wimps.

2. In Ch.VI, Wollstonecraft raises several concerns for the way women were socialized. Which of the following would not be an item she addresses in that chapter?

That females are made women of when they are mere children.

That women deserve equal pay for equal work.

That the habitual slavery to first impressions puts women at a disadvantage.

None of the above.

Answer

That the habitual slavery to first impressions puts women at a disadvantage.

3. An explanation(s) Wollstonecraft offers for why women were drawn to the ‘rakish’ character in her day was…?

A. That the façade of the rake is easily detectable, but that his character is exciting.

B. That women could not live without love given the way they were socialized.

C. That the ‘bad boy’ image the rake projected filled their thirst for being provided for and would be the kind of man that would stand up for her.

D. All of the above.

Answer

c. That the ‘bad boy’ image the rake projected filled their thirst for being provided for and would be the kind of man that would stand up for her

4. When Wollstonecraft writes that, “The generality of people cannot see or feel poetically, they want fancy, and therefore fly from solitude in search of sensible objects; but when an author lends them his eyes they can see as he saw, and be amused by images they could not select, though lying before them.” Which of the following relates to that idea?

A. That females are taught to obediently follow the rules without question.

B. That it is advantageous to be alone sometimes.

C. That women were trapped to first impressions.

D. The value and importance of basic literacy skills.

Answer

B. That it is advantageous to be alone sometimes.

Part II: True/False: (a.k.a. flip a coin) 3 points each

5. For Nietzsche, being free means doing what your conscious tells you you should.

TRUE

6. In his book, On Liberty, Mill presents an anti-paternalist view.

TRUE

Part III: Short Answer: In a few actual, complete sentences, respond to the following: (6 points each)

7. Explain one specific example of Nietzsche’s point about the transvaluation of values and how a concept that once was considered bad is now good or what was once consider good now evil in the new system of value in conjunction with the actual lessons provided.

The transvaluation of values is a basic concept of humanity whereby the values held by a group of people ceases to be believed at the moment a new perspective is brought to the people. For example, he gives an example of Christianity and Buddhists. Christians make the human low and do not value the human person especially those who live a good life as it states they live in sin however Buddhism values human life and strives to end suffering. Therefore these two are contradictory and thus Buddhism in this case wins because it replaces Christianity which praises suffering.

8. Explain how Nietzsche would explain the phrase, “live in the moment” as suggested in the actual lessons provided.

He states that living in the moment is the best thing a person can do since they do not have to worry so much about eh past neither do they have to worry so much about eh future because from the present they can decide what kind of future they want and work towards it. therefore he stresses that a person should just look into the past into what they did not do correctly and make sure they do it correctly then the future is aligned.

Part IV: Essays: Write on any two (about one page each or more if possible)

1. Discuss Wollstonecraft’s thoughts on the education of women and the impact that can have on relationships as discussed in the lessons provided. What does she envision the future to be like? Are we there yet? If not, why not?

She was born in 1759 and her father did not provide for her good education. Therefore when she was 18 years she ran from home and she never went back there. She became a companion with a widow and she never stayed for long. However, at the age of 24, she began her school for girls only and this was to provide girls with education which her father never provided. She wrote different books like the vindication of the rights of women which inspired different people greatly to look towards women’s education and make it better for a balanced society.

Wollstonecraft especially celebrates women’s rationality and she values the place of women in the intelligent part of the society as she states that women should be intelligent on their own and not dependent on men. However, for intelligence reasons should be the first thing. And even with the development of intelligence, it does not mean that women to stop siring children. However, with the children and their caring nature women can still be outstanding in their intelligence and be better than thought about by most men. She stated that women should have the same education men have and they should study in the same schools.

2. Discuss Nietzsche’s critique of Plato and Christianity, emphasizing his thoughts on how the value systems hold us back. Be specific when possible with your examples and explanations as per the lessons provided and NOT other unsubstantiated internet sources.

3.Discuss the idea of freedom as found in Mill’s On Liberty and in Nietzsche’s concept of das Ubermensch. What is it to be free according to Nietzsche? Give specific examples as per the actual lessons provided.

4. Wollstonecraft writes, “This habitual slavery, to first impressions, has a more baneful effect on the female than the male character, because business and other dry employments of the understanding, tend to deaden the feelings and break associations that do violence to reason. But females, who are made women of when they are mere children, and brought back to childhood when they ought to leave the go-cart for ever, do have not sufficient strength of mind to efface the superinductions of art that have smothered nature.”- What is she saying here as presented in the actual lessons? What would a specific example of “females who are made women of when they are mere children” look like today and why as suggested in the actual lessons?

The behavior and the making of everyone is a result of their manner of being brought up. For the ladies, it is easy to get caught up by the first impression of something especially men. This, therefore, turns out that it is not the nature of women but their lessons when they were young. It is the same thing for boys who are never so much looked into when they are young to be taught what to look for as first impressions of something. However, ladies are taught these kinds of things, and therefore it is easy for them to identity first impressions of different things and especially men who might love them or who they might fall in love with.

For men, it is different though because they are not taught these but are taught other things like cognitive abilities and how good they can be in practical subjects and less of emotions. Men are taught generally how they can be supportive and protective shields in society, unlike women. Therefore women are made women when they are children the same as men. An example of an actual woman would likely be submissive to their husbands and do household chores and expect the man of the house to provide financial needs of the family.

5. Okay, I couldn’t resist: Discuss the “Dumbassification” of America and what specific factors lead to this phenomenon. Be sure to relate your response in some way to the actual lessons provided at some point in the semester.

Introduction and Objective

Introduction and Objective:

The Nkye shoe company has some data on SHOE SIZE, HEIGHT, GENDER and they are looking to change their business model based on this data which is to “include only one size of shoes – regardless of height or gender of the wearer”. So based on their objective we can define the hypothesis as below for Gender and Height:

For gender:

Null Hypothesis (Ho): There is no statistically significant difference in the population mean size of shoes for males and females.

Alternative Hypothesis (Ha): There is a statistically significant difference in the population mean size of shoes for males and females.

For Height

Null Hypothesis (Ho): There is no statistically significant difference in the population mean size of shoes among different height categories.

Alternative Hypothesis (Ha): There is a statistically significant difference in the population mean size of shoes among different height categories. At least one category has different mean from each other.

Data and variables:

Here we have three variables which are

SHOE SIZE, HEIGHT, GENDER

Here SHOE SIZE is continuous variable

GENDER is categorical variable

and HEIGHT is also continuous variable.

We have 35 observations in these three variables and there is no missing data.

As our objective is to see whether there is any significant difference between the population shoe size for across different heights of the wearer so we need to convert this variable into category so that we can perform the test and get the information from the analysis. The Height variable will be categorized as

60-65 -> Group 1

65-70 -> Group 2

70-75 -> Group 3

75-80 -> Group 4

Note: We will test the above hypothesis at 5% level of significance.

Method of Analysis:

Here we have to test the population mean for two groups as well as for more than two groups. We will use t test for unequal variance and ANOVA (One way analysis of variance) to test the above hypothesis and objective.

T test for independent sample will be performed for Gender as there are only two groups such as Male and Female.

ANOVA test will be performed for Height as there are more than two groups which is defined below again.

60-65 -> Group 1

65-70 -> Group 2

70-75 -> Group 3

75-80 -> Group 4

Modified data and output:

Data for gender is given below:

Male Shoe Size Female Shoe Size

7 5

11 7.5

12 9

14 7

10.5 7.5

11 8

10 6.5

12 7

10.5 7.5

12 6.5

9.5 6

11.5 6.5

14 10

13.5 6.5

9.5 7

13 6

11 7

7.5

Output for t test is given below:

t-Test: Two-Sample Assuming Unequal Variances

  Male Shoe Size Female Shoe Size

Mean 11.29412 7.111111

Variance 3.251838 1.281046

Observations 17 18

Hypothesized Mean Difference 0 df27 t Stat 8.165111 P(T<=t) one-tail 4.53E-09 t Critical one-tail 1.703288 P(T<=t) two-tail 9.06E-09 t Critical two-tail 2.05183  

Data for height is given below:

Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4

6 6.5 7.5 14

6 6.5 9 14

5 7 7.5 13.5

6.5 7 11.5 7 7 7.5 6.5 8 7.5 7 10.5 9.5 11 10 11 12 12 9.5 10.5 10 13 12 11

Output for ANOVA test is given below:

Anova: Single Factor SUMMARY Groups Count Sum Average Variance Group 1 6 37 6.166667 0.466667 Group 2 11 90 8.181818 3.263636 Group 3 14 140.5 10.03571 3.671703 Group 4 3 41.5 13.83333 0.083333 ANOVA Source of Variation SS dfMS F P-value F critBetween Groups 140.3668 3 46.78893 16.9385 1.27E-06 2.922277

Within Groups 82.86851 30 2.762284 Total 223.2353 33        

Interpretation of results:

We can see from the t test that the P-value of the two tailed critical value is less than 0.05, so in this case we will reject the null hypothesis because p-value is less than the 5% level of significance. It means that there is a statistically significant difference in the population mean size of shoes for males and females.

From ANOVA table we can that the P-value is 0.000 which is less than 0.05, so in this case we also will reject the null hypothesis because p-value is less than the 5% level of significance. It means that there is a statistically significant difference in the population mean size of shoes among different height categories. At least one category has different mean from each other.

Conclusion and Recommendation:

We can conclude from the above analysis performed with respect to this data that there is a significant difference in the shoe size for gender as well as for height. Nkye Company needs to make shoes of different sizes. There is no way or no possibility to make one size of shoes because it varies with respect to gender and height.

Introduction to archaeology, questions

Introduction to Archeology:

Name:

Professor:

Institution:

Course:

Date:

According to Richard Reece, the Roman coins were “not happy” about being in the so called sacred spring. Why not?

The Roman coin was one of the substances that were derived from the exchange of goods and services. These coins were said to be one of the most valuable due to the fact that were made from silver, gold and bronze. The coins were not only used in Rome but in countries such as the Great Britain and Greece. Despite the high value that the coins heard, some of the authorities took advantage of their position by hoarding the coins so as to increase their value further. These made the lifestyles of the citizens in that they had to work harder to get the value equivalent to one coin. These were not the easiest times for the people of the Roman society due to the immense oppression that came with the search for the coin. This is why Reece states that the Roman coins were not happy (Howgego, 2007).

Later when the Roman coins and the metal work came to light, Guy de la Bedoyere and Mick Worthington felt the assemblage was “wrong”. Why?

The Roman coins and the metal work had been introduced to the people of Rome. This meant that they could enjoy the advantages that came with the coinage. Guy de la Bedoyerere and Mick Worthington however did put the credibility of the coins in that they differ from the original ones. The two archeologists argued that the original assembly of the coins differed from the original ones. This further implied that the original coins had been tempered with. Some of the ways in which they were tampered with was the quality, shape and texture of the new coin. This affected the general coinage of the new coin (Ando, 2000).

Why did the archeologists think the “Neolithic tomb” was a fake?

The Neolithic times consisted of tombs that consist of large rocks in nature. Most of the tombs created during this era posses the same qualities such as Stone Age and organized arrangement. The most recent discoveries on the Neolithic tombs were found in Ireland. These toms attracted an enormous amount of attention due to the controversy that came with their discovery. The tombs were said to be fake due to the way in which they were structured. The tombs are classified under passage tombs. Passage tombs have orthostatic characteristic that display the time in which they were drawn. These tombs however displayed armature orthostats that were supposed to make the tombs resemble the ancient tombs. This was exaggerated making the tombs subject for planted evidence which is not uncommon in the world of archeology (Malone, 2001)

There were three reasons why the archeologist believed the ‘Norman tower’ was a fake identify two

The Norman towers were fake due to the type of stone that are used to construct them. One of the reasons that support this notion is the fact that they are not built with genuine Kensington rune stone. The tower consists of modern stone that does not match the one of the prehistoric times.

Writers who wrote of the existence of the towers on several occasions wrote about non nonexistent features. Some of the components of the towers cannot be found to date. This displays that the towers were part of myths that were written to fuel the interests of the public (Adams, 2007).

According to the law of superposition, we know the Iron Age sword was placed in the ground at Llygadwy fairly recently. Explain?

The laws of superposition explain the arrangement of the rocks that are in existence. One of the reasons for this is to explain the age of the items found in the found. There are claims that the Iron Age sword was planted in the ground. This can be supported by the age of the soil which does not match with the age the discoverers claim the sword is. This sword is said to poses qualities of the Iron Age although the soil in the ground is younger than the stated time (Kelly & Thomas, 2010).

Adams, H. (2007). Mont-Saint-Michel and Chartres. Middlesex, UK: Echo Library.

Ando, C. (2000). Imperial ideology and provincial loyalty in the Roman Empire. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Howgego, C. (2007). Coinage and identity in the Roman provinces. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.

Kelly, R. L., & Thomas, D. H. (2010). Archaeology. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Malone, C. (2001). Neolithic Britain. Stroud: Tempus. Neolithic Britain. Stroud: Tempus.

Introduction to Business – BUSA 2115 – Fall 2020

Introduction to Business – BUSA 2115 – Fall 2020

Written Assignment: BUSINESS LETTER Paper

For this assignment, each student is required to write a 3-5 page business proposal. The assignment includes a 1-page cover letter and the body (2-4 pages) of the letter. The cover letter is an executive summary of your proposal. The body contains the details of your proposal. Remember, you are providing this to a busy executive, so be concise and to the point with your information. Be sure and give rationale for your recommendations. This is an individual assignment. Your written assignment (BUSINESS LETTER) will be rubric graded.  Please review the rubric before you complete the assignment. Please use APA or MLA format for your paper.

The premise of your assignment:

You are a manager in the marketing, strategic planning, or operational department of an American company – you choose the company (real or imaginary) and your department. You have received an assignment from the CEO of your company to find new opportunities to improve the sales and the market share of your company, either in the US or abroad.

This assignment includes creating a written proposal of these new opportunities. In this proposal, you need to write (1) a business cover letter and (2) an attachment containing the detailed proposal. The proposal should address the following items: your company, the business type of your proposal, the marketing strategy, the marketing mix, the financial status, and the goals.

In this paper you need to demonstrate knowledge of basic business concepts and managerial functions in a business context. In your paper you will identify some key components of a business plan. You may choose to propose to your CEO to partner with (or purchase) another company. If so, please provide your plan to attract your prospective business partner.

Grading Rubric for BUSINESS LETTER Assignment

Description Pts Score

Cover Letter: Demonstrate knowledge of key concepts and business terminology learned in class. Use correct and complete format of a business letter consisting of 6 essential parts; use either APA or MLA format

Post completed assignment in COUGARVIEW 25 Attachment Describe your company 5 Describe your proposal 15 Explain your marketing strategy10 Describe your marketing mix of 4Ps 20 Describe your financial status and goals 15 Readability – were there sentences or sections that did not fit, make sense, or stay on course with the paper itself? Other minor errors in word usage, spelling, grammar etc. 10 Submit paper by deadline – 10 points deducted per day late TOTAL POSSIBLE POINTS: 100 YOUR SCORE: _______________

Business Letter

1. Demonstrate knowledge of key concepts and terminology learned in class.

Highlight any terms or concepts from the textbook. You can use any method you choose to highlight your terms. I simply want to see that you have used proper and appropriate business terms.

2. Describe your company.

This is like the Company Profile of the Case Assignment you have already completed.

3. Describe your business proposal.

What type of new business opportunity or opportunities are you going to propose for your company? Is your proposal for a sale or purchase? Manufacture or licensing or franchising? Joint venture or wholly owned operation? Feel free to be creative and pursue any of the concepts you have learned in this course. There is no single “right answer” for this type of assignment. It always depends on your proposal for pursuing this new business opportunity.

4. Explain your marketing strategy

Please provide a clear explanation of your marketing strategy for your business proposal, which should include your target market and the appropriate marketing mix to satisfy the target market.

5. Describe your marketing mix of 4Ps.

You need to address 4Ps of the marketing mix (product, price, placement, and promotion) for your proposal.

6. Describe your financial status and goals

You need to address the financial status of your company and your financial goals along with your business proposal.

APPENDIX – Rubric for the BUSINESS LETTER Paper

Criteria Exceeds expectations

(90-100%: A) Meets expectations

(80-89%: B) Does not meet expectations (less than 70%: C) Fail to meet expectations (less than 69%: D or less)

Cover Letter

(30 points) The cover letter uses the correct and complete form for a business letter. A business letter contains the six essential parts: heading, inside address, salutation, body, closing, and signature. The description provides the six parts in general but not in clear and professional manners. The description provides a few of the six parts not in clear and professional manners.

The description fails to provide a business letter in clear and professional manners.

Demonstrate knowledge of key concepts and terminology of business. (10 points) Descriptions use knowledge, concepts, and terminology from the class to describe the business letter and proposal: in the attachment parts, descriptions cite specific chapters from the textbook when using terms and or ideas: descriptions are very theoretical and analytical; statements are quantitatively enough. Descriptions use knowledge, concepts, and terminology from the class to describe the business letter and proposal, but not completely: descriptions are simple and descriptive; statements are quantitatively not enough. Descriptions need to use much more the knowledge, concepts, and terminology from the class to describe the business letter and proposal: descriptions are not academic; statements need more quantitatively. Descriptions fail to address the assigned items in effect in quantity as well as quality.

Describe your company (10 points) The profile includes all parts of a company profile such as history, vision and missions, CEO, product lines, organizational structure, supply chains, employees, financial statements, competitors and current issues; descriptions are very theoretical; the contents are quantitatively enough. Descriptions follow the guide but not enough in terms of the number of the items: the profile includes the information on the company, but not sufficiently or correctly; descriptions are simple; the contents are quantitatively not enough. The profile does not include all of the information on the company; descriptions are not academic; contents are quantitatively too brief and superficial. Descriptions fail to address the assigned items in effect in quantity as well as quality.

Describe the business type of your proposal. (10 points) Descriptions clarify a business type for the proposal with explanation on the benefits and costs on both sides of the business partners; it explores the alternative business types, and how it is determined in terms of optimum solution: descriptions are very theoretical and analytical; statements are quantitatively sufficient. Descriptions contain a business type for the proposal with explanation on the benefits and costs on both sides of the business partners, but not complete and clear; it explores the alternative business types, and how it is determined, but not completely: descriptions are simple and general; statements are quantitatively not sufficient. Descriptions do not clearly explain about the business type properly and explore few of the alternatives: descriptions are not academic; statements need more quantitatively. Descriptions fail to address the assigned items in effect in quantity as well as quality.

Explain your marketing strategy (10 points) Descriptions clarify a marketing strategy for the proposal with explanation on the pros and cons on both sides of the business partners; it explores the alternative marketing strategies, and how it is determined in terms of optimum solution: descriptions are very theoretical and analytical; statements are quantitatively sufficient. Descriptions contain a marketing strategy with explanation on the pros and cons on both sides of the business partners, but not complete and clear; it explores the alternative marketing strategies, and how it is determined, but not completely: descriptions are simple and general; statements are quantitatively not sufficient. Descriptions do not clearly explain about the marketing strategy properly and explore few of the alternatives: descriptions are not academic; statements need more quantitatively. Descriptions fail to address the assigned items in effect in quantity as well as quality.

Describe your marketing mix of 4Ps (10 points) Descriptions explain well about the 4Ps of marketing mix of your company product and business and provide an analysis for the alternatives; descriptions are very theoretical and empirically deep and accurate in information; contents are quantitatively sufficient. Descriptions contain the 4Ps of marketing mix of your company product and business and provide an analysis for the alternatives, but not completely and not enough in terms of the number of the items: descriptions need to be more theoretical and deeper empirically; contents are quantitatively not sufficient. Descriptions do not follow the guide in items: descriptions are not academic; descriptions lack significantly the analysis; contents are quantitatively too brief and superficial. Descriptions fail to address the assigned items in effect in quantity as well as quality.

Describe your financial status and goals (10 points) Descriptions specify a complete information on the financial status of your company; an analysis on the financial statements is addressed; then the financial goals from the business proposal is described; descriptions are very theoretical; the contents are quantitatively enough. Descriptions specify some information on the financial status of your company and provide an analysis on the financial statements, but not complete and correct; the financial goals from the business proposal is described, but not sufficiently or correctly; descriptions are simple; the contents are quantitatively not enough. Descriptions specify the information on the financial status of your company and the financial goals poorly and incorrectly; descriptions are not academic; contents are quantitatively too brief and superficial. Descriptions fail to address the assigned items in effect in quantity as well as quality.

Readability – were there sentences or sections that did not fit, make sense, or stay on course with the paper itself?

Other minor errors in word usage, spelling, grammar etc.

(10 points) 4 points

Sentences and sections are completely fit, make sense, or stay on course with the paper itself and few minor errors in word usage, spelling, grammar, etc; contents are quantitatively sufficient. 3 points

Sentences and sections are not completely fit, make sense, or stay on course with the paper itself and minor errors in word usage, spelling, grammar, etc; quantity of contents is not enough. 2 points

Sentences and sections are not fit, not make sense, nor stay on course with the paper itself and many errors in word usage, spelling, grammar, etc; contents are quantitatively too short. Descriptions fail to address the assigned items in effect in quantity as well as quality.

TOTAL POSSIBLE POINTS: 90-100 80-89 70- 79 Less than 70

 

Introduction to Criminology

Introduction to Criminology

Question 1

Classical criminology

Punishment for wrongdoing should have a pre-established balance with the crime committed, meaning that punishment imposed for murder should not be equal to rape or lesser forms of delinquency (Siegel 10). In classical criminology, people are free to choose lawful solutions to solve their challenges, crime is appealing if it has big befits with small effort, and crime is controlled by the fright of punishment. Also, very strict consequences for crime and similar forms of punishment discourage criminal behavior.

Positivist criminology

In this view, positivist criminology challenges classical criminology and focuses on the cause of crime (Siegel 11). To explain criminal behavior, the positivists use scientific methodology, social factors, physical factors, and biological attributes.

Sociological criminology

Sociological criminology focuses on the major social changes taking place in society (Siegel 12). People in society are very different and use criminal behavior to meet their demands. It is difficult for society to remain without criminal behavior since human petty vices would be uplifted to crimes.

Conflict criminology

Conflict criminology emphasizes that crime result from human conflict and interpersonal conflicts shapes human behavior (Siegel 13). People’s lives rotate around the means of production, the way people produce goods affects their character.

Question 1 A.

Positivist criminology developed in the nineteenth century and it presented an innovative way on the cause of crime. People pass through different stages as a way of understanding the world (Siegel 11). For instance, in the early stages societies believed that lifeless objects like the sun have a life while in late social stages societies accept science. The reason I chose this perspective is because in comparison to other perspectives, positive criminology is more applicable to modern life, as it focuses on the motive of committing a crime to determine the punishment for crimes committed. The scientific analyses of the crimes ensure justice is served to both parties since every party is considered including the accused.

Question 1 B.

Positivist criminology examines human behavior scientifically to determine if one is a criminal (Siegel 11). For example, a study on the facial appearance of criminals found that the shape of nose ears, and eyes were related to antisocial behavior. Furthermore, studies on abnormality found that anomaly of the human mind is associated with criminal behavior. Criminals have features that differentiate them from non-criminals. Lombroso’s study found that there were born criminals who had teeth common to carnivores (Siegel 11). People with such features are more prone to criminal behavior compared to non-criminals

Question 2

Criminal justice is made up of all of the bodies in a government that have the mandate to enforce the law, adjudicate crime, and correct criminal conduct (Siegel 19). Crime justice experts develop effective programs for crime prevention. Criminal justice is primarily an instrument of social monitoring and control. It is used to enforce wat society considers acceptable behavior. Agencies of justice, who form part of the criminal justice system, prevent social harms through apprehension, trying, and convicting criminals. Therefore, the criminal justice system has all the power to control crime as well as punish law breakers.

On the other hand, criminology is concerned with identifying the cause, nature, extent, and control of criminal behavior using scientific means (Siegel 4). Criminologists also are concerned with the operation of agencies’ justice and their influence on criminals, including how policies affect crime rates and trends. Criminology is primarily a study of crime, its various forms and triggers, including what may lead to increased or increased trends given different factors. Therefore, criminology is just an academic discipline that relies on science to provide meaningful interpretation of crime and criminal patterns.

Works Cited

Siegel, L. “Criminology: The core: Cengage learning.” (2019).

Introduction to Geology

Introduction to Geology

ASTR 1010L

There are four basic ways the surface of a solid object (a planet, moon, asteroid, or comet) can be modified geologically.

Watch the “Geological Surface Processes” video. What are the four major processes that change the planetary surfaces? Explain how each works and what kinds of features can be formed.

The four major processes are Cratering, Volcanoes, Erosion, and Weathering. Earth experiences many impacts including eruptions, but most craters have been erased by other processes. The craters left by impacting objects can reveal information about the age of a planet’s surface as also its nature and composition at the time the crater was formed. The Earth’s atmosphere and oceans are formed through volcanic outgassing. Volcanism involves the melting of materials within a planet and the eruption and transport of these materials on a planetary surface. For most surfaces the molten material is a silicate-rich fluid. The most common magma on the terrestrial planets is of basaltic composition. A special kind of tectonics, plate tectonics are responsible for shaping the Earth’s surface. Tectonic processes manifest themselves as distinctive morphologic features like faults, fractures, and folds, and the specific characteristics of these features can often be used to infer the local style of deformation that has occurred. Ice, water, and wind drive cause erosion on Earth. Erosion is distinguished from weathering, the physical or chemical breakdown of the minerals in rock. However, weathering and erosion can happen simultaneously.

Let’s examine each of these in turn. Open the “Global Image of Mercury”. What process has most affected Mercury’s surface?

Processes such as solar wind and meteoroid impact affect the surface of mercury. Comets or meteorites may dispose ice in mercury’s surface. Water vapor may also outgas from the planet’s interior and freeze out at the poles of the mercury surface. These process affect the smoothness of Mercury’s surface.

Would you estimate that the surface of Mercury is young or old? Why?

Mercury is about 4.5 billion years old so its surface is most definitely old.

4991100-165513Look more closely at the regions that look like this:

Hypothesize what could make the light streaks coming out from the center of the crater.

The light streaks coming out of the crater could be caused by an eruption. It is more likely that the light streaks is a result of a volcanic eruption.

6638925279414Now look at the “Global Image of Venus”. Zoom in, scroll around, and look for craters. Do you find very many? Note that stripes or rectangles that look like those in the picture to the

right are because a section of Venus was missed when the camera was scanning the surface.

Yes, there are many craters when the ‘Global Image of Venus” is zoomed in. The stripes or rectangular shapes are a result of catering which creates the shapes and the impacts creates the stripes.

If there aren’t very many craters, what surface process do you think would have covered them all up?

If there were no many craters, a volcanic impact could have covered them all up. When volcanism occurs, lava flows and as a result, the craters and faults created during cratering are filled up.

Much of Venus’ surface is covered with lava plains and evidence of tectonic activity. Find what you think is evidence of each of these and either sketch or copy and past part of the picture.

Why does it make sense that volcanic activity and tectonic activity occur in locations close to one another?

Tectonic activity occurs when tectonic plates come into contact and cause friction resulting to faults. Similarly, volcanic activity occurs as a result of high temperatures and pressure beneath the Earth’s crust. These temperature and pressure causes tectonic plates to move and cause tectonic activity.

Venus does have volcanoes in addition to its extensive lava plains, but we’re going to skip on to Mars and look at an example of a shield volcano. The most common volcanoes in the solar system are shield volcanoes, named because they are shaped like a shield placed on the planet’s surface. A computer-simulated view of Olympus Mons, the largest volcano in the solar system, is shown below.

5012690-48315Olympus Mons’ caldera, the location from which the lava flowed, is in the center of the volcano; the other two (smaller) circular features near the top of the volcano are impact craters.

An actual photograph of Olympus Mons is posted on iCollege as well as a topographic image. In the topographic image, the

greens and blues are lower elevations and the reds are higher elevations.

Estimate the height of Olympus Mons above the zero point of the elevation (the average radius of Mars; we use this as a reference height like “sea level” on Earth, but Mars has no sea…).

It has a height of about 20km, or 70,000 feet.

Estimate how far below the zero point the average land round Olympus Mons is. Explain your method; you should come up with a value that is not zero.

It is approximately 634 kilometers of land round. Olympus Mons is one of a dozen large volcanoes, many of which are ten to a hundred times taller than their terrestrial counterparts. The tallest of them all towers 16 miles (25 kilometers) above the surrounding plains and stretches across 374 miles.

Add your two values together to get an estimate of how high Olympus Mons is above the surrounding land.

Convert your value to km.

Measure the length of the scale bar in cm on your display.

Determine the scale of the displayed image: 1 cm = 0.00001 km.

Measure the width of Olympus Mons (not the whole image, just the volcano; it should be pretty easy to see where it begins because for an unknown reason Olympus Mons has a cliff around its base).

Convert your measurement to the actual size of Olympus Mons. Be sure to show your work.

1 cm = 0.00001 km.

Olympus Mons = 634km

634km = 6.34e+7

Answer= 6.34e+7.

Measure the size of the caldera in cm and convert your measurement to km.

Next you are going to construct a scale model of Olympus Mons as seen from the side. To start, let the line below be the base of Olympus Mons.

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Based on the height of Olympus Mons you estimated in part c, figure out how tall Olympus Mons is on this same scale. Show your measurements and your work.

It has a diameter of 624 km (374 mi).

25 km (16 mi) high, and is rimmed by a 6 km (4 mi) high scarp.

A caldera 80 km (50 mi) wide is located at the summit of Olympus Mons.

Sketch a side view – correctly to scale – of Olympus Mons using the line above as the volcano’s base. Show the caldera to scale as well.

A Caldera 80 km (50 mi) wide is located at the summit of Olympus Mons.

Before continuing, send a picture of your side view to Dr. Skelton. You don’t have to wait for her to respond before continuing, but do get confirmation you have done this correctly before turning in your lab.

In addition to lots of volcanic activity in its past, Mars also had tectonic activity. Remember that when things – including the interiors of planets – heat up, they expand. Look at the “Global image of Mars”. What do you see that is evidence of extensional tectonics? Draw a sketch.

Evidence of extensional tectonics include craters and faults created in the planet as evident in the image below.

Valles Marineris on Mars is much larger than any other tectonic feature on Venus or Mars. It is so large and so deep, in fact, that early in Mars’ history when there was liquid water on the surface, water flowed in the bottom of it and eroded it.

Ius Chasma, shown up close in an image on iCollege, is part of the Valles Marineris system. The main part of the chasm, running in roughly parallel, mostly straight lines from top center to lower right, was formed by tectonic activity. What evidence of erosion do you see in and near the chasm? Look carefully for two different effects that running water had.

Some of the evidence of erosion include Eos and Ganges are another set of chasmata that contain volcanic or windblown deposits that have slowly eroded over time. Purgatory Chasm is the result of weathering of closely-spaced, quartz filled, ‘joints’ that may mark edges of the Valles Marineris system.

Before continuing on, look again at the small cracks (straight rilles) seen in the upper left of the image. Did the impact crater happen before or after the tectonic expansion? How do you know?

Wrinkles and rilles are evidence that impact crate happened before the tectonic expansion. Wrinkles and riles are as result of cratering. It means that the process begun with small cracks, riles then to wrinkles which created faults and led to shift in tectonic plates and as a result tectonic expansion occurred.

Mars also has wind and therefore wind erosion. Look at the “Curiosity Selfie”. What evidence of wind erosion do you see? (Hint – there are two… One is more basic and may be more difficult to come up with than the other one.) Also – this is a mosaic of 57 images, so the scientist constructing the “selfie” from Curiosity’s images removed the image of the arm holding the camera so it wasn’t distracting.

Ice, water, and wind drive cause erosion on a planetary surface. Erosion is distinguished from weathering, the physical or chemical breakdown of the minerals in rock. However, weathering and erosion can happen simultaneously. Water vapor may also outgas from the planet’s interior and freeze out at the poles of the planetary surface hence causing erosion.

Next we are going to turn to moons of the outer planets, starting with Io. Look at the “Global View of Io” and describe the features you see.

The inner surface of Io is composed of an iron or iron sulfide core and a brown silicate outer layer. giving the planet a splotchy orange, yellow, black, red, and white appearance. Io formed in a region around Jupiter where there is a lot of water or ice. The surface looks icy and windy.

The black features are not craters. In fact, there are no craters at all on Io! What does this tell you about what has happened geologically on Io? Has this happened recently, in the near past, or in the distant? How do you know?

Jupiter’s strong gravity attracted the planetesimals more strongly than Io and thus no crater landed on its surface. Io did have impact craters but they have all been buried in lava flows. This shows that there is no cratering in Io due to lack of gravity.

In fact, all of the black spots on Io are the calderas of active volcanoes. Look again at the image and find at least two locations where the lava is flowing out of the caldera in what look like sinuous rilles in the making. Sketch the lava flows below.

6332220-5414Prometheus is the volcano that is just to the left of the center of the photograph of Io:

In addition to having lava flowing from the caldera, there is also material being

erupted upward. You can figure out the maximum height of the material being thrown from Prometheus by looking at the image below.

75565047855First calculate the scale of the picture. The radius of Io is 1820 km; not all of Io is shown in the image of Prometheus, but the red dashed line shows where the center of Io would be.

1.82e+8 cm = 1820 km

1 cm= 0.0001 km

Next measure the height of the Prometheus eruption in cm, then convert your measurement to the actual number of km using the scale factor.

Measured height in cm: 1e+7 Calculated height in km: 100

What are two reasons you can think of that Io’s volcanoes can spew material so much higher that Earth’s volcanoes do?

The atmospheric pressure in Jupiter where IO is located is high hence the volcanoes will spew material quite higher than on Earth.

Temperatures are extremely high around Io so the volcanoes erupting around this area would be higher that Earth’s volcanoes.

5283836136818The volcanic plume Tvashtar erupts even higher than Prometheus. Use the same method as before to calculate the height of the Tvashtar eruption in km. Show all your measurements and your work – this picture is a different scale so you will need to calculate a new scale! Remember that this picture shows the whole diameter of Io…

Tyashtar erupts 385 kilometers (239 miles) high and covers a terrain as far as 700 kilometers (435 miles) from its center.

1 cm= 0.0001 km.

385 km x 0.00001 = 3.85e+7

Answer = 3.85e+7cm

A different perspective shows a ring around Tvashtar where the erupted material falls back to the ground. Pele is another volcano with a large ring. Draw a sketch of what you think Pele looks like as seen from the side instead of from overhead.

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Look at the global view of Saturn’s moon Enceladus. Identify as many geologic features as you can and discuss how you think they would have formed.

Some of the notable geologic features in Saturn’s moon Enceladus include; fissures, plains, corrugated terrain and other crustal deformations also indicate that Enceladus is geologically active. One of the more dramatic types of tectonic features found on Enceladus are its rift canyons. These canyons can be up to 200 km long, 5–10 km wide, and 1 km deep.

Do a Google image search to find pictures of Saturn’s moon Titan, both in visible light and in the infrared.

Describe how this moon looks different in visible light than the other moons you’ve observed.

The lighted side of the Moon faces away from the Earth. he right half of the Moon appears lighted and the left side of the Moon appears dark. During the time between the New Moon and the First Quarter Moon, the part of the Moon that appears lighted gets larger and larger every day, and will continue to grow until the Full Moon.

Describe how this moon looks different in infrared light than the other moons you’ve observed.

Infrared waves, or infrared light, are part of the electromagnetic spectrum. This is caused by the different angles from which we see the bright part of the Moon’s surface. These are called “phases” of the Moon. Of course, the Moon doesn’t generate any light itself; it just reflects the light of the Sun. The Moon passes through four major shapes during a cycle that repeats itself every 29.5 days. The phases always follow one another in the same order.

What explanation can you suggest for the features you see on Titan?

Titan is bigger than Earth’s moon, and larger than even the planet Mercury. It is the only moon in the solar system with a dense atmosphere, and it’s the only world besides Earth that has standing bodies of liquid, including rivers, lakes and seas, on its surface.

Does Titan have erosion? Find images that justify your position and describe what you see.

Due to a network of rivers in Titan, it experiences little erosion.

Is Titan’s surface young or old? What evidence do you have to make this determination?

Titans surface is old due to the presence of wrinkles and rilles are evidence that impact crate happened long time ago. Wrinkles and riles are as result of cratering. It means that the process begun with small cracks, riles then to wrinkles which created faults and led to shift in tectonic plates and as a result tectonic expansion occurred.

Finally, let’s loop back around to Mercury. We have looked at impacts, volcanism, and extensional tectonics, and erosion, but not compressional tectonics. Look at the “Scarp on Mercury”. Sketch what you see that is evidence of the interior of Mercury shrinking. Explain how this feature could have formed.

Cooling in the planet causes mercury to shrink. This slow cooling may drive very recent and even current tectonic and seismic activity on Mercury. This slow cooling drives a very recent and even current tectonic and seismic activity on Mercury.

Introduction to Philosophy

Introduction to Philosophy

Student’s Name

Course

Date

Question 1

The categorical imperative, according to a German philosopher, Kant, is a formal procedure to evaluate any action performed as to whether it could be morally upright. According to Kant, the categorical imperative follows the rule that one should only justify an action to be ethical if that act could be generalized as a universal law. Thus, the categorical imperative is an objective, necessary rational principle that must always be followed despite any desire to do the contrary. The strengths of the categorical imperative include the universal acceptability of legal action. All human beings are seen as rational beings who would act in the same way because it is deemed the right thing to do so. Also, the CI is impartial since the actions categorized as moral are not guided by freewill but by general respect to the dignity of fellow humans. More so, the imperatives are based on reason and logic, which determines human behavior and choice. However, the CI has some weaknesses, such as lack of motivation, in realizing that something is irrational. There is also a conflicting duty in choosing the right way to follow based on the general acceptance of an issue (Lecture: Predominate Ethical Theories).

Utilitarianism is the ethical doctrine that suggests that actions are right if they are beneficial to the majority. It places the definition of right and wrong basically on the consequences of the work. For instance, killing a thief who would have made a large group of people to suffer is justifiable since the majority of the people will not suffer after his death. Among the strengths of this ethical approach is that it emphasizes on happiness, which is the aim of life for most people. Also, it is pragmatic in that it focuses on the consequences of an action. Besides, it is easy to follow since the consideration is whether the move will lead to happiness or suffering among the majority of people. However, utilitarianism may not be able to predict the consequence of an action before the action occurs. For example, would killing that thief lead to grief in his family? Or, would his death cause hatred among the killer and the thief’s society? Also, happiness is not easily defined as what makes one person happy may not make another happy as well. Therefore, I think the Kantian theory is better than utilitarianism because it focuses on the universality of an issue.

Question two

The pro-choice issue on abortion includes those people that buy the idea that abortion should be legalized. The pro-choice individuals believe that each woman has a right to decide what goes on in their body (lecture notes, abortion). According to Judith Jarvis Thomson, abortion is allowed in some instances and not in others. On one side, she argues that life starts at conception, and thus abortion is bringing an end to it. However, she also describes the right to life as not be unjustly killed, which in this case, abortion is no injustice to the unborn. She came up with some analogies like the case where a famous violist is hooked to another person for survival without the latter’s consent. If the person decides to detach the violist from his body, he will die to lack of support. However, it is morally right to determine what goes on with your body. And thus, detaching the violin would not be ethically correct. According to Beverly Harrison, the right to abortion helps in preventing class dominance. That is, if made illegal, rich women would still be able to pay, unlike the poor ones.

 On the other hand, John T. Noonan claims that personhood begins at conception, and changes follow after that. Therefore it would be wrong to commit abortion as it is seen as bringing an end to that development. He claims that the fetus holds the same life as a grown-up individual, and thus abortion is considered murder. Other pro-life activists support his argument and dictates that the government should have a say when it comes to abortion. The third approach to abortion is where a person can be both a pro-choice and pro-life. For instance, one may believe that abortion is terrible but refrain from warning people against it. A woman would be against abortion on a religious basis but allow another one to perform it on medical grounds.

Question 3

The phrase that ‘existence precedes essence’ is a central claim of existentialism, which means that personality is not built on a precise purpose, but rather, it is the choice of humans to engage in the use. According to existentialists, humans create their values by determining the meaning of their lives. Thus, it is the nature or essence of humans that lead to their existence. The idea that presence comes before essence is well explained by the philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre. However, the phrase, ‘essence precedes existence,’ is the traditional view that shows the selfishness of humans and that they are rational beings.

Sartre believes in the first phase of existence precedes essence. He believes that people are defined by what they surround themselves with, and thus, a difficult situation is only intolerable because the people allow it to be so. The feeling is evident through his claim that the world is a reflection of our freedom, where he meant that the world triggers people to react. To criticize the other phrase, Sartre claims that man first exists, establishes himself, fits in the world, and then defines his life afterward. Therefore, there is no way that the essence of a man would come before his existence. I agree with Sartre’s claim that ‘existence precedence essence.’ The reason for my choice is that for you to realize your nature and importance in life, you must first be in that life. Humans learn of different life aspects as they grow and interact with each other, thus increasing their value. Also, people are only defined (essence) according to their actions, for which they are responsible. Therefore, it is like humans to choose what to do and what not to do. For instance, for a person to be described as having an essence of being cruel, they must have shown cruelty in their behavior (Existentialism lecture). I believe that a person can choose not to be evil, and thus, it is not in their nature to be good or bad.

Question 4

Thomas Hobbes, in his Leviathan theory, suggests that human beings are motivated by the need to preserve themselves. He claims that naturally, people would do anything to maintain their life, which is short, poor, and nasty. Also, he claims that humans are motivated by the desire to gain, and that is why they are competitive and violent. Due to these perceptions, humans need a central government to control their desires by placing no space for the unjust. Similar to Socrates, Hobbes believes that political sensitivity is has been overtaken by liberalism. He also states that men will always strive for peace when they are treated as equals since they want to outdo each other. Nature treats all men equally, and therefore the government has a role of ensuring peace between men as they strive to be better than each other.

On the other hand, Jean-Jacques Rousseau described human beings as compassionate beings who are moral naturally. However, they adapt to changes in the pre-existing urban chaos and lose their natural compassion when subjected to the urge for money. Humans are prone to corruption to satisfy their greed for wealth and power. Therefore, the state is a collection of individuals who aspire to instill the morals in its people. The general will of the country is to determine the right from wrong and is established through laws. The public will of the state is created through the majority will of the people. Therefore, people rely on the government for peaceful co-existence and to prevent greed from overtaking their natural goodwill.

References

Dr. John Tamilio III, Lecture Notes: Abortion.

Existentialism lecture, A Brief Introduction to Existentialism Retrieved from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5HhGRfxH81M&t=2s.

Prof. John Tamilio III, Ph.D., Lecture: Predominate Ethical Theories

Next Gen Technologies

Introduction.The aviation industry is undergoing through radical changes. This is in a bid to improve on security, cut production and running costs, becoming environmentally friendly, reducing travelling time and improving on service delivery. These changes are done to have an edge over the competitors in the industry while maintaining client satisfaction. In the United States, changes in the aviation industry are being put in place already. There is the development of the Next Generation Air Transport System (Next Gen). This is the name given to a new National Airspace System which is going to be implemented across the nation between the year 2012 and 2025 in stages. This paper is going to look at the technology, system and components of next generation aircrafts.

Next Gen Technologies.In a bid to realize the goals of National Airspace System (NAS), there has been a lot of modeling and remodeling of aircraft improvements. Technology is being pushed to the limit as it was evidenced by the manufacture of Concorde aircrafts. These crafts are take three hours to make a flight from New York to London while a normal aircraft takes a whooping seven hours. There has been a need to even reduce further the three hours taken by Concorde planes. This has led to the development of X-51A Wave Rider aircraft which flies unmanned and could take one hour to fly between New York and London. It is said that technology used in the Wave Rider aircraft could be used in next generation military aircrafts, space aircrafts and passenger planes too. All this is to save time taken to travel between locations.

In order to be within the set environmental limits, technology has been employed to tackle the issues mostly noise pollution. Over the years, there has been production of better and quieter turbine engines that are high performing and improved fuel consumers. There has also been the emergence of aircrafts that are light in weight. This has been possible by the use of strong light weight plastics and composite materials instead of metal. Light aircrafts reduce fuel consumption thus saving of money. There are plans to come up with technology that aims at improving fuel efficiency by 60% or 70%.

Plans are under way to develop engines that are run by bio-fuel. This is being worked on in order to comply with regulations that stipulate the amount of carbon emission airlines are allowed to release in the atmosphere. If such engines are developed and prove to be a success, then huge costs will be cut from buying fuel as bio-fuel is cheaper compared to petroleum.

Next Gen System.Currently, the air traffic control system used in America is the ground-based system which is being termed as old. All countries in the world use this system to guide air traffic in their respective air spaces. Next Gen however, has proposed the use of satellite-based system. This system will use Global Positioning System (GPS). This system helps pinpoint positions of anything in the world with utmost accuracy. It is being used in mobile phones, vehicles among other fields. Its introduction in the aviation industry will mean air routes will be shortened hence saving of fuel and time, there will be reduced air traffic delays and air traffic controllers will have the ability to control aircrafts with greater safety margins compared to today.

Next Gen projects to use the GPS system in aircrafts by the year 2020. This will allow pilots to choose their own flight paths. Pilots will also know their positions in relation to other planes thus the ability of many flights taking place close to one another and yet evade collision. The system will also aid in transfer of information regarding weather conditions. This is important information to aviation players as it helps predict weather conditions in planned routes. In general GPS system will lead to faster flying, better landing, improved navigation in different weather conditions and better running of airports.

Next Gen Components.There are five components in Next Gen and they include;

System Wide Information Management (SWIM); This system will provide a platform for one information system to avail data to many users and applications by reducing the number and types of system and interface. It will reduce redundancy of data and facilitate multi user information sharing thus new ways of decision making due to ease of information accessibility.

Next Generation Data Communications; Voice communication form the large base of communication between aircrew and traffic control, and between air traffic controllers. Incorporation of data communication will add to the two way communication for instructions, advisories, flight crew request, reports and air traffic control. This will enable air traffic controllers handle more traffic, enhance safety and capacity and improve productivity.

Next Generation Enabled Weather. (NNEW); Majority of air delays are related to weather. The goal of NNEW is to reduce these delays by merging the many different weather observatories and sensors from the ground, those that are airborne and from space into a single national weather information system which will be updated in real time. It will provide a common weather picture and report in the national airspace system which ill translate to better decision making and air travel.

NAS Voice Switch. (NVS); There are seventeen different voice switching systems being used now. NVS aims at replacing these systems with one ground-ground and air-ground voice communication system. This is meant to bring uniformity in aviation communication.

Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast (ADS-B); This surveillance broadcast will use the global positioning system to provide pilots and air traffic controllers with information that will aid in the safety of aircrafts while flying and taxiing in the runways. It will be achieved by the mounting of transponders on the planes to receive signals that will help determine the aircrafts position in the sky in relation to other air traffic. These signals and other data will be relayed to pilots and air traffic controllers at the same time thus improvement in air safety.

Conclusion.In order to achieve objectives of National Air Space, there has to be increased funding and support from the government and all stake holders. This will lead to the realization of set goals within the stipulated time. The duration of time taken to merge both mid-term and long-term goals should be reduced in order to speed up the actualization of goals and maintain consistency. Achievements made so far have proved that anything is possible thus the need for people and players in this quest to have faith in proposals made towards any goal of NAS.

Knowledge of the environment is very important for all

Introduction:

Knowledge of the environment is very important for all. the course allows me to understand the different aspects of the science fundamentals related to environment , the different biomes and the diversity and how water management can help to preserve the diverse features of land water mass. Energy is a very important source of life and a discussion on the different kinds of energy allows one to understand why they have to be preserved and the reason why man has to look at alternate sources of energy .a discussion of different units helps us to understand environmental science better.

Energy Matter and Cycles: The energy sources are said to have been split into three ways: that is the fossil fuels, the renewable sources, and the nuclear sources. The fossil fuels thus include coal, petroleum, and natural gas. The renewable energy sources are the solar, wind, hydroelectric, biomass, and geothermal power. There are many ways where the abundance of energy can be stored, converted, and amplified for the benefit. The key energy sources play an important role in the future. The main reason where the energy needs to be cycled is by the living things which we generally put matter through requiring energy. It takes energy to turn a sugar into protein. The reason life is able to exist on Earth is that we have a constant input of energy from the Sun. Photosynthetic life is being formed to harvest the Sun’s energy, and thus the other organisms could basically steal their energy by eating them.

Science fundamentals are termed to be simple processes at surfaces and the complex materials and systems, the youngest planets and the oldest galaxies. Our aim is to discover the fundamental laws of nature and their creativity to the problems of industry, health and the hydrogen economy. Some of the University has a centuries-old record with the research in mathematics, the physical sciences and astronomy. Fundamentals of Science provide the basic knowledge for a whole range of practical uses and applications which can be used to address issues faced by mankind in treating scientific expositions especially regarding the origin and life and universe .

Biomes are climatically and geographically defined as similar climatic conditions on the Earth, such as communities of plants, animals, and soil organisms, and are often referred to as ecosystems. There are certain parts which exhibit the same kinds of biotic characteristics and are hence called as biomes . Biomes are known very particularly by the flora such as structures of plants, structure types , types of leaves and also by the way the plants are paced like savannah, woodlands ,shrubs etc. biomes are neither genetically the same not do they exhibit taxonomic similarities .Biomes are very important in studying the ergonomical habitat of the flora and of other natural landscapes such as . ponds, trees, streams, creeks, and burrows in the sand or soil.

Biodiversity is the term given to the variety of life on Earth and the natural patterns where it forms. The biodiversity is shaped by natural processes and, by the influence of humans. It forms the web of life in an integral part. This diversity is often understood in terms of the wide variety of plants, animals and microorganisms. There are huge base of nearly 1.75 million creatures that inhabit the earth. Scientists take the actual count at about 13 million species. The very important aspect of biodiversity rests on the truth that despite having so many different species there is a natural collection of all of them in some kind existing together. The sequencing and chronological order of the arrangement of every specie within it sub species has allowed for a wide interaction and arrangement of the two . There has been examples of bio diversity between crops and livestock .the life building blocks of the DNA and the chromosomes have identified and taken care of the different natural specie characteristic and trait . Biodiversity is seen widely in many different kinds of natural habitat where the biotic and the abiotic environment interact with each other ot form a community whre mankind has found himself to flourish.

Water Management generally offers products, services and water solutions that increase the efficiency of water that create water savings for customers worldwide.  It usually takes to develop and deliver location specific water solutions. Water Management has been involved in water projects by way of utilizing the best efficient technologies and thus supports companies in many market sectors. Using our knowledge and understanding of water efficiency to develop a full-circle strategy actively reduces the usage. Water Management can thus help in managing water for the indoor use to outdoor uses.

Climate change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns over periods. It may be a change in average weather conditions, or in the distribution of weather around the average conditions. Climate change is caused by factors that include oceanic processes such as oceanic circulation, biotic processes, variations in solar radiation received by Earth, “climate change” is often used to describe human-specific impacts. Air pollution is the introduction into the atmosphere of chemicals, particulates, or biological materials that cause discomfort, disease, or death to humans, damage other living organisms such as food crops, or damage the natural environment or built environment. The atmosphere is a complex dynamic natural gaseous system that is said as essential to support life on planet Earth. The emissions from different kinds of machinery and other activities used to make man’s life easier and the other technological innovation have led to ozone depletion and led to global warming which has been recognized as a threat to human health as well as to the Earth’s ecosystems.

Conventional energy sources include oil, gas and coal. These conventional sources are usually fossil fuels. Their use leads to increased greenhouse gas emissions and other environmental damage. Conventional energy sources cannot be renewed and hence have to be preserved . The conventional sources of energy are generally non-renewable sources of energy, which are being used since a long time. These sources of energy are being used extensively in such a way that their known reserves have been depleted to a great extent. At the same time it is becoming increasingly difficult to discover and exploit their new deposits. As per records and the availability of gas, the reserves of oil will be depleted in a few decades and coal reserves too. Alternate sources of energy will have to found out as coal, petroleum, natural gas and electricity are conventional sources of energy.

Alternative energy is said to be one of an energy source that is said to be an alternative to fossil fuel.  These alternatives are said to be intended to address about fossil fuels. What constitutes the nature of an alternative energy source has changed considerably over time, as have controversies regarding energy use. Because of the variety of energy choices and differing goals of their advocates, defining some energy types as “alternative” is highly controversial. In a general sense, alternative energy as it is currently conceived is that which is produced or manufactured without using any fossil fuel. Alternate sources of energy refer to all those naturally used sources which do not have carbon emissions contributing to global warming . 

Conclusion:

An understanding of the different kinds of energy that the nature has in store is slowly being depleted and hence careful conservation of the same is needed and the environment needs to be studied and preserved very carefully.

References:

aeckersberg.weebly.com/uploads/5/8/3/9/…/sp7_-_chapter_2.pdf

www.cbd.int/2010/biodiversity/www.environment.tn.nic.in/SoE/images/WasteManagement.pdf retrieved from home.utah.edu/~ptt25660/tran.html‎

www.environmentalleader.com/category/conventional-energy/‎

www.epa.gov/climatechange/‎ www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/airpollution.html‎

www.watermgt.com/‎

www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/glossary/gloss5/biome

Types of Ecosystem

Introduction:

National science foundation (NSF) in 1980 established The Long Term Ecological Research (LTER) Network to conduct research ecological issues that can last decades and span huge geographical areas.

The Network brings together a multi-disciplinary group of more than 2000 scientists and graduate students. The 26 LTER sites encompass diverse ecosystems in the continental United States, Alaska, Antarctica and islands in the Caribbean and the Pacific.

LTER is an international best organized and most successful groups conducting research in ecology. The aim of the LTER is to pursue a long-term research on based on long-term data and information which is necessary for truly understanding environmental phenomena.

27717756096026 Sites of LTER:

Andrews Forest LTER (AND)

Arctic LTER (ARC)

Baltimore Ecosystem Study (BES)

Bonanza Creek LTER (BNZ)

California Current Ecosystem LTER (CCE)

Cedar Creek LTER (CDR)

Central Arizona – Phoenix LTER (CAP)

Coweeta LTER (CWT)

Florida Coastal Everglades LTER (FCE)

Georgia Coastal Ecosystems LTER (GCE)

Harvard Forest LTER (HFR)

Hubbard Brook LTER (HBR)

Jornada Basin LTER (JRN)

Kellogg Biological Station LTER (KBS)

Konza Prairie LTER (KNZ)

LTER Network Office (LNO)

Luquillo LTER (LUQ)

McMurdo Dry Valleys LTER (MCM)

Moorea Coral Reef LTER (MCR)

Niwot Ridge LTER (NWT)

North Temperate Lakes LTER (NTL)

Palmer Antarctica LTER (PAL)

Plum Island Ecosystems LTER (PIE)

Santa Barbara Coastal LTER (SBC)

Sevilleta LTER (SEV)

Shortgrass Steppe (SGS)

Virginia Coast Reserve LTER (VCR)

Among 26 LTER sites The California Current Ecosystem (CCE) would be described here.

3714750258445California Current Ecosystem (CCE):

Location:

CCE LTERs is located off the southern coast of California, extending from San Diego north to San Luis Obispo and westward over 500 km. 

Geographical location is

Latitude: 32.90

Longitude: 102.30

Types of Ecosystem:

California Current system is a coastal upwelling biome and it is coastal pelagic ecosystem.CCE includes eastern current (California current) of North pacific gyre. This currents circulate water around the North Pacific Ocean. In this current, wind acts on sea surface and it facilitates the upward movement of nutrient rich deepwater so that surface dwellers can take this nutrient. This process is known as coastal upwelling. Upwelling ecosystems are most productive ecosystems. The CCE sustains active fisheries for a variety of marine invertebrates ,finfish and aquatic animals, modulates hydrologic cycle ,weather patterns of most of the west coast of United States, and plays a vital role in the economy of myriad coastal communities.

Area of interest: why this site has chosen

It is an ideal location of LTER because it has 5 decades of climate context provided by the calCOFI (California Cooperative Oceanic Fisheries Investigations). The location of this site is in a bigeographic boundary where climate change is very rapid. Within this small geographic area there is a pronounced spatial gradient and its anoxic basins provide a unique connection to paleoceanographic studies; and the extant 4-D physical ocean circulation model of the region will permit rapid advances in the development of coupled bio-physical models of ecosystem transitions. LTER network can compare the coastal pelagic upwelling ecosystem with other biomes in respect to primary production pattern and control, of inorganic inputs and movements of nutrients patterns, Spatial and temporal distribution of populations selected to represent trophic structures, , and disturbances frequency and pattern.

Types of researches have been done and going on:

California Cooperative Oceanic Fisheries Investigations (CalCOFI) has studied the CCE LTER site over 60 years. Scientists have observed changes in the CCE that happen over a variety of time scales. The changes include the Pacific Decadal Oscillation, and El Niños which results in long term ocean warming trend that has been documented over the past 6 decades. The Pacific Decadal Oscillation includes a series of warming and cooling periods that occur in 20-30-year cycles.  El Ninos is a periodic change of ocean atmosphere which includes increased ocean temperatures and decreased upwelling in the equatorial Pacific Ocean.

 The main purpose of this site is to built up a bio-physical model for understanding and forecasting the consequences of El Niño and low-frequency climate forcing on pelagic ecosystems of the California Current and similar biomes.

Research Focus

Study of four mechanisms that may lead to rapid shifts in the California Current Ecosystem:

Observation of changes in the food web in response to changes in ocean stratification and the supply of nutrients

Transport of several organisms along the coast from the northern to the southern part of the California Current system (and vice versa).

Transport of organisms from the coast to regions located far offshore. Currents transport coastal species offshore away from their preferred habitat and this result in destruction of marine ecosystem.

Changes in predation.

The researches in the CCE- LTER site are based on following processes:

Experimental Process Studies:

This study focuses on the stratification of the water column and its effect on the food web. Stratification prevents the movement of nutrient reach water to the sea surface where the nutrients are needed for the growth of microscopic algae called phytoplankton. Amount of stratification varies across time and space. Researchers focus on the change of stratification across space. Divergences in the amount of nutrients of phytoplankton at different depths and in different places may cause species variation. Cyanobacteria which are the producer of the ocean’s food web are inhabited in the boundary between nutrient rich deep water and nutrient poor surface water. CCE LTER scientists are conducting studies to know the effect of ocean stratification on the Cyanobacteria and other organisms.

Time Series Studies:

 Time series is a group of repeated, scientific measurements performed in the same place but at different times. CCE LTER usually takes 4 types of time series.

First type: measurements made at sea four times a year , and examine oceanic microbes organic matter dissolved in sea water concentration of several metal like iron, which is essential nutrient for marine plants and algae.

Second type: use satellite observation to measure pigments produced by phytoplankton and sea surface temperature.

Third type: uses more frequent measurements of phytoplankton and ocean temperature made at near shore sites including the Scripps pier, other locations along the coast in a network called the Southern California Coastal Ocean Observing Systems (SCCOOS), and the Ocean Institute at Dana Point.

Fourth type: robotic ocean gliders are used to make continuous measurements across the CCE region.

Modeling studies:

Computer models are used to interpret and understand the observation which is made during experiments. Information system contains the data from the various components of the CCE-LTER and allows researchers to access and combine all of those data. An Ocean Informatics electronic hub at the Integrative Oceanography Division (IOD) at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography control all the documentation and data associated with the CCE-LTER projects

Researchers involved:

Mark D. Ohman (SIO), Peter franks (SIO), Steven Bogard (PFEL), James E. Conners (SIO), Peter Davison (SIO) and many others.

Conclusion:

There are many categories of stressors affecting the overall condition of the California Current ecosystem. This range includes traditional activities such as coastal development, fishing and emerging industries (shipping, renewable energy, desalination), the proliferation of land-based pollutants, and accelerating climate change. This stressor vigorously effects the marine population and marine ecosystem. Increase surface Temperature influences rates of metabolism and affects the range limits of many marine organisms. Scientists and researchers have shown that over the course of the past 60 years concentrations of dissolved oxygen have varied substantially. Periods of lower oxygen (hypoxia) reduce the vertical extent of habitable ocean for a variety of invertebrates and marine fishes and, while the habitable volume expands during intervals of higher dissolved oxygen (McClatchie et al. 2010). For the past 25 years gradual decline of dissolved oxygen has raised concerns about loss and compression of habitat for some commercially important rockfish such as the cowcod (Bograd et al. 2008).one study has shown that over past 60 years a group of marine zooplankton known as salps has been declined (Lavaniegos and Ohman 2007).Salps are very small celled suspension feeder and efficient grazer of phytoplankton and are important vectors that help repackage organic carbon and other compounds into a form that sediments quickly to the deep sea floor. Thus long-term carbon sequestration in the deep sea odd California may be altered by the decline in salps population. Another study has shown that the transparency of the California Current System has decreased slowly, but progressively over the past 6 decades (Aksnes and Ohman 2009). Seawater transparency plays a major role in controlling “encounter distance” at which visually-hunting predators like seabirds, fish, and some marine mammals can detect prey. The sustainability of some consumers that occupy the middle and upper levels of ocean food webs may be affected by deciline in encounter distance due to decrease in transparency of sea water.

Now scientist are not only trying to protect the California Current but also working to restore vitality and resilience in such a dynamic and changing system.

Reference:

http://cce.lternet.eduhttp://www.packard.org