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the causes of lightning

Lightning

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Lightning

Introduction

While there are several hypotheses posited to describe and explain the causes of lightning, the scientific description and explanation tend to hold. Munoz, (2003), explains that most fulminologists argue that it is a form of electrostatic discharge in the atmosphere, which usually accompanies thunder. Most of the lightning does occur during thunderstorms or volcanic eruptions.

Formation

As water evaporates from the earth’s surface in form of hot gas through convection into the atmosphere, they replace the cold air and condense beside the clouds to form dark cumulus nimbus clouds. These clouds form approximately 230, 000 feet ASL (above the sea level). As condensed air, forms water droplet while the rest changes into the ice sheet or snow particles. When these ice crystal and the water droplets collide with each other countercurrent, they create static electricity. The static electricity so formed builds up in different parts of the media (cloud and earth). As they build up, they reach various charge potentials. However, if the charge potentials (both positive and negative) reach their thresholds, the clouds discharge them. The positive (ve) and negative(-ve) charges created rapidly in different media tend to attract, however, as they continue to build up, a bridge is created naturally or through other media, a human being or electric poles (Wang, Ushio, & Kawasaki, 1995).

The difference in the electric potential of different part of the cloud causes a rift in which the clouds use a third media (an electric path) to bridge them to facilitate the flow of electric current and th surge results into a main stroke (Munoz, 2003).

How lightning works

Whenever the lower section of the cloud with the negative charges attain threshold, the electric charges within then cloud ionizes the air around the cloud. This turns the surrounding air into an electric path due to the conductivity of the static charges. This builds up and surge travels down to the ground into buildings and infrastructures. As the discharge continues, it creates charge vacuum after the leader stroke. The negative charges tend to move from the cloud to the ground and meets the streamers moving in the opposite direction. This counter movement of the electric charges is defined as the return stroke, which is usually observable to the bare eye. The main strokes lead to the formation of a zigzagging form of the flashes those lights up the airspace following the pathway of the negative charges. The zigzag formation is due to the disparity between the ionization of the air. The most ionized parts appear in the form of sparks of light, and the less ionized parts do not show any lightning

Key characteristics of lightning

A flash of lightning can composes:

Flashes that appear intra-cloud (within the thunder cloud)

The temperatures of the lightning vary between 100 °C to 30,000 °C.

The most noteworthy characteristics are the speed at which lightning travels. The speed ranges from 100, 000km/h to 200, 000km/h.

All these characteristics have both negative and positive effects on nature, but it is common place to notice the negative impacts more than the benefits to nature. The most noteworthy impact is the damage to properties and injuries that people sustain when lightning strikes. However, it may be to fatal to results into death depending on the intensity and magnitude of the lightning.

Figure SEQ Figure * ARABIC 1: picture of the lightning phenomena What causes lightning?

According to Rakov, &, Uman, (2003), there are many causes of lightning, but the most probable explanation bases on the scientific facts around lightning. Wang, Ushio, & Kawasaki, (1995), argue that lightning is appearing during thunderstorms, because liquid and ice particles come into constant collision and as they collide, a large electrical field is developed amongst the clouds. As the electric fields enlarge, they form flashes due to the opposing positive and negative ions. This static electricity discharge is manifested in the form of flashes. This flashes carry with them electric energy being discharged and have an inherent nature of shifting into anything they meet. If the flashes are exposed to a human being and the magnitude of the electric charges within the flashes was high, the damage might be fatal or even kill. However, building is the most hit due to the large surface areas. Lighting effects are often seen in towns with various demographic characteristics, such as Texas.

Types of lightning flashes

There are various types of lightning flashes; this categorization is based on the Nature of occurrences. However, the main types are:

Ground to cloud:

These types of lightning occur due to the difference in electronic charge potential between the ground and the cloud above it.

Cloud to ground-

Cloud to ground lightning occurs when the charge difference between the cumulonimbus clouds and the earth ground beneath it is high. The cumulonimbus clouds tend to discharge the energy to maintain the potential. The energy is released in the form of flashes, which might lead to loss of lives.

Cloud to cloud-

This lightning occurs between separate clouds having different charge potentials. If it occurs between cloud, it is referred to as inter-cloud lightning; However, if the charge potential within a cloud is different, and a lightning flash is produced, Fulminologists refer to that as intra-cloud lightning (Rakov, &Uman, 2003)..

The intra-cloud and then inter-cloud occur between the cloud and then ground. The one occurring within the thunder cloud poses no hazard, but the flashes of lightning occurring between the cloud and the earth lead to destruction of buildings, infrastructures and lives.

Triggered lightning: This is the lightning caused by acts of man, for example, during the launch of lightning rockets etc

Extraterrestrial lightning-

These are the lightning’s that are registered in areas beyond the earth’s surface

Researches

While lightning has attracted a lot of attention among scholars and scientists, the most studied lightning is the cloud to ground lightning. This is so because of the magnitude and the prevalence in some areas. These areas exhibit similar characteristics such as large and tall skyscrapers, high population and extreme activities. The most prominent characteristics are the proximity and interaction to the skyscrapers, telecommunication systems, air planes, and other infrastructures. All these are naturally close to the thunderstorms and thus pose exceedingly significant threat. It is essential to realize that where as a single flash of lightning across the sky may only last for one second, it might contain an original return stroke and the two subsequent return strokes each lasting for approximately 90 milliseconds. Between the strokes there ere likely to be intervals of about 50 seconds

Rakov, &Uman, (2003), state that with each stroke, there appear mobile currents. These mobile electromagnet currents have a sub micro-second rise with insignificant fractional changes. It is also noteworthy that even if the electric flash encounters an electronic device, they are likely to spread to other adjacent areas causing interferences in the communication systems or electronically sensitive systems. The radiated electromagnetic waves with the negligible changes sometimes tend to interact antagonistically with avionics and other electronic devices (Munoz, 2003).

Recommendation for further research

Lightning are still a common phenomenon; however, there is a general belief that it has a connection with the metaphysical. It is imperative to understand the metaphysical aspects and the interconnectedness between scientific explanation of the causes of lightning and the religious beliefs. The fundamental understanding of lightning in the religious circles might offer an introduction to the metaphysics. Perhaps the religious explanation may be realistic based on the law of evolution. However, as meteorologists and scientists believe that the electrostatic changes between different Media are responsible for the lightning, we should focus on the possible intervention to these struck by lightning, in addition to why some areas are exceptionally prone to lightning. The electronic combustion of air by particularly powerful electric fields, which results into the production of forces on the charges and the subsequent flow of energy, needs further investigation for counter interaction. It is also beneficial to investigate the manner in which the potential energy carried by the electrostatic changes to thermal, light and the sound energies and how they are transmitted to the surface of the earth.

References

Munoz, R., (2003). “Factsheet: Lightning”. University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. Retrieved November 7, 2007.

Wang, D, Ushio, T; Kawasaki, T., (1995). “A possible way to trigger lightning using a laser”. Journal of Atmospheric and Terrestrial Physics 57 (5): 456–466.

Rakov, V; &Uman, M, (2003). Lightning: Physics and Effects, Cambridge University Press,

Limitations to the applicability of Keynesian economic policies

Limitations of the Applicability of the Keynesian Economic Policies

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(Institutional Affiliation)

The Keynesian principles of economics are a school of macroeconomic theory that basis its arguments on the principles and ideologies of John Keynes, a twentieth century economist. The principles point out that the decisions of the private sector at times result to inefficient macroeconomic results and, thus, campaigns for responses by the public sector through such actions as monetary policy and fiscal policy by the central bank and the government respectively to stabilize the output in the cycle. The principles by this economist argue for a mixed economy, one that is mainly composed of the private sector, but also has a considerable role of the public sector and the government. This particular economy model was seen and practiced during the Second World War, the great depression and during the economic expansion of after the war (Chapter 12. Keynesian economics and the Great Depression).

This paper, therefore, will look at and try to solve the issue of what the economists of the Keynesian principle suggest is the best solution for the problem of insufficient aggregate demand if it were to exist in an economy. Furthermore, the article will also attempt to find out whether there are any limitations or shortcomings of the applicability of the principles proposed in the Keynesian economic theory.

After the great depression, the socialist cause became extremely popular and especially in the 1930s. While the capitalist world at this time was experiencing one of the most challenging depressions, the Soviet economy was experiencing a booming growth. The depression hit, and most Americans were caught by surprise, as they had to come to believe in the notion that their nation was destined to attain immense success. The economic system based on capitalist ideas seemed inadequate to address these challenges and was actually on the verge of collapse. To revive it, a number of countermeasures had to be developed, nut to develop such measures, an understanding of what had happened was also crucial. One English economist named Keynes, who in his book tried to explain what had happened to the capitalist economy, made this task easier (Chapter 12. Keynesian economics and the Great Depression).

Keynes began his task by attempting to look at and understand the production process. In a certain period, a company produces a certain amount of products worth a certain value. From the revenues generate from the sale of these products, the company pays and compensates for the production cost, which in many cases includes wages, rent, salaries, raw materials, supplier and interest on loans. What remains after all this has been paid off is the company’s profit. According to the economist, one thing never to forget here is that the production cost to the business organization represents income to another firm or individuals. The profit is also the income the owners of the firm gain. Because the production value is exhausted, the value of the products has to be equal to the generated incomes resulting from its production (Chapter 12. Keynesian economics and the Great Depression).

In terms of the whole national economy, the aggregate picture is similar to that for an individual company. The value of all products in the economy during a certain stage is equivalent to the overall profits established during the matching stage. As it follows, for a company to sell all its products, customers have to spend in the aggregate all of their incomes. If any amount equal to the society’s total income is spent on services and goods of a certain company, then the production value is realized in the realized sales. As a result, profits remain high, and business owners are willing to manufacture or produce similar amounts or more amounts of the product (Chapter 12. Keynesian economics and the Great Depression).

Keynes referred to such a trend as a circular flow because money flows from businesses to the society in the form of salaries, wages, rent, profits and interests, and the money then flows back to the companies when the society procures the merchandise and services created by the companies. However, this flow is never complete. When money moves from the companies to the society, some of it never goes back to the companies. Therefore, this circle has leakages. This is because not all people spend all of their money. They save certain percentage and, therefore, they withdraw it from the spending stream. Another group of people who take loans from banks because they spend more money than their income also offsets this saving. Keynes, however, argued that at the peak of success savings are usually more than what customers borrow; therefore, there is usually a net leakage or a net saving from the circulating flow of expenditure and income (Chapter 12. Keynesian economics and the Great Depression).

Keynes also pointed out other kinds of leakages. Firstly, individuals buy services and goods from foreign businesses, but the capital they spent on importing these goods and services cannot be spent on products that are produced domestically. Secondly, the taxes individuals pay are also not included in the income, expenditure flow. Leakages that result from imports, saving and taxes can be offset by exports. This happens when foreigners purchase goods produced in the US in levels or amounts similar to the imports bought by US citizens. The government makes use of taxes to finance the buying of services and goods. If it makes use of all taxes for the same reason and balances the budget, then the expenditures of the state will offset taxes in the spending flow. On the other hand, if business people want to expand their capital, they have the option to finance investment on capital goods through taking loans from funds saved at the bank. Investment, thus, may in a way offset the leakage in savings (Chapter 12. Keynesian economics and the Great Depression).

If these three are injected into the flow of income and expenditure then they are just as significant as the three leakages in the savings, and spending becomes equal to the production value. Everything that businesses produce has the potential to be sold and success reigns.

The economist, however, held the belief that it was unlikely that the process could go on without interruptions for a long period. Investment, which is needed to absorb savings enlarges the stock of capital and, therefore, increases the productive capacity of an economy. Income and production must, therefore, increase in the following period to make use of the new capacity of production fully. However, with increase income increases in savings occurs, which calls for increases in investment, and according to Keynes, this investment is never forthcoming. He saw that people with higher incomes saved more percentages of their income as compared to those individuals with lower incomes. He held that this pattern is true for the whole society, as the society’s aggregate income increase, total society’s savings increase (Chapter 12. Keynesian economics and the Great Depression).

This is to mean that, at each new higher income level, an even larger level of income is kept away as savings. Therefore, investment would have to increase at a higher rate than income if it would successfully offset savings constantly. Only such a quick increase would allow businesses to sell all of their products, but as investments grows quicker, the quicker is the increase in the capacity to produce. As a result, the economy has to invest in even larger amounts in each successive time if it is to maintain the balance. Keynes, however, pointed out that in any mature economy generated by the private enterprise the number of investments profitable enough are limited, thus, as the process of growth of the economy continues, so does the difficulty of finding enough outlets of investment. If it becomes difficult to find sufficient outlets for investment, then investment falls short of total and saving expenditures of products fall short of the product value of the produced goods. If a business is unable to sell all of its produced goods then it reduces the level of production for the next period. This in turn results to decline in income, decrease in employment and reduction, in production (Chapter 12. Keynesian economics and the Great Depression).

With the decline in incomes, however, more consumers spend less on products in the following period. This leads to further cuts in the levels of production and the downward trend continues. Under such circumstances, incentives to expand a business’s capital are low, and investment reduces. All types of expenditures decrease. Savings, as well, decline with decreases in income. This process goes on until the time when income reduces so much such that there is no longer surpasses the decreased investment level. Equilibrium is realized at such low levels of income. Leakages from the flow of expenditure and income are equal once more to the injections into the flow. The economy becomes stable but at a level where significant unused capacity of production and unemployment exists (Chapter 12. Keynesian economics and the Great Depression).

The application of the Keynesian economic policies has a number of limitations according to several of his critics. One such criticism that pointed out the limitations of the Keynesian policies is the neoclassical macroeconomists who in the 1950s started to disagree with the policies and methodologies Keynesian employed. Keynesian and his successors focused on the dependence of consumption of income that is disposable, and of investment on current cash flows and current profits. Furthermore, the Keynesians posited a curve that connected the nominal inflation of wages to rates of unemployment. To support his theories, Keynesians and his successors traced to the logical basis of their model and supported their theories with statistical data for evidence. Neoclassical macroeconomists demanded that macroeconomics be based on similar foundations as theories of microeconomic theories, rational, profit- maximizing companies and utility- maximizing customers (Akerlof, 2007).

An Australian economist who pointed out that the Keynesian economic policies exhibited and made use of a collectivist approach pointed out another limitation of the applicability of the economic policies of Keynes. The economist argued that such theories or approaches encourage planning that is centralized which in turn leads to capital malinvestment, which is the predominant cause of cycles in business. The critic also argued that the studies by Keynes of aggregate relations in an economy are not applicable, as recessions are, as a result, of micro- economic factors. He pointed out that what begins as a temporary fix by the government usually grows to become expanding and permanent programs of the government, which limits or eliminates the civil society and the private sector all together (Hayek, 1989).

References

Akerlof, G. A. (2007). The Missing Motivation in Macroeconomics. American Economic Review 97, 5–36. 

Chapter 12. Keynesian economics and the Great Depression. Retrieved from http://www.public.coe.edu/~eichhorn/Pmac/HuntCh12.pdf

Hayek, F. (1989). The Collected Works of F.A. Hayek. University of Chicago Press.

Limitations of Weighted Average Cost of Capital

Limitations of Weighted Average Cost of Capital

Weighted average cost of capital is the least return that a company is expected to earn so as to be able to satisfy the providers of a company’s capital, it is weighted according to the fraction assigned to each item in the pool of capital.it can also be defined as the return that is required on average to pay all the security holders in order to be able to finance its assets. Examples of sources of capital are; common stock, preferred stock, straight debt, convertible debt, exchangeable debt, warrants, options, pensions liabilities, executive stock options and so on.

The overall required return is very useful to the directors and managers of companies for it enables them make viable investment decisions, for example they can decide to expand their operations or to merge. Weighted average cost of capital assists in gauging the financial position of a company and hence being able to plan for the future as costs of acquiring finances are minimized as much as possible. It also assists in choosing the best capital structure that a firm can use.

Weighted average cost of capital is calculated by multiplying the cost of each element of capital for example loans or bonds by its percentage of total capital and then adding them together.

Weighted average cost of capital has got some limitations in its applications due to such reasons as; calculation of weighted average cost of capital is so complex due to the need to know the specific rate of return required for each source of capital, for example different sources of capital haves different taxation rates and also different interest rates hence the need for the exact rate of return. It has also some limitations because it is not very suitable as far as accessing risky projects is concerned because the cost of capital will be higher to reflect the higher risk. WACC is used by investors to show whether a company is a viable investment opportunity, it represents the rate at which it gives value to the investors.in addition to these different people will come up with different formulas for calculating WACC for the same company which give different results making WACC have limitations which hinder it being applicable in some cases.

In conclusion the companies WACC is very important both to the stock market for stock valuations and to the company’s management for capital budgeting purposes. The limitations are also very necessary for enabling investors know whether the WACC will suit them or they would prefer another method of calculating the average cost of capital, this will depend on the nature of business one engages in.

Limited liability Company

Limited liability Company

Students Name:

Institution:

Date:

Limited Liability Company

Different from other business structures, a limited liability company has separate and

dissimilar legal rights and obligations. The most valuable thing about LLC is that its

members are not accounted for debt or liabilities of the company. Making it stand out from

the rest businesses structures LLC benefits is that it’s flexible, easy to change, and simple to

run. For instance, if the LLC owner separates his assets from the business, he should be

protected from the debts and liabilities. If the LLC is said to go bankrupt, the creditors can

only gather their debts from the assets of the business.

An S corporation is a business structure that has attractive tax benefits, and its

liabilities are protected with the corporation. S corporation is essential where businesses

are small and large as members may pay less on tax. S corporations are not entitled; hence

international revenue service manages taxation and prevents the company from double

taxation (Lux & Mclean 1998). Both business structures, the S corporation, and LLC are

obliged to taxation. Disparities occur in that an S corporation, taxes are lined down to

individuals while in LLC, the organization is taxed.

During business formation, it is essential to view taxation as it is considered as an

expense. From the case discussed above, it is crucial to forming an S corporation rather than an

LLC, as the taxes of the LLC, don’t favor individuals. Decision making may be critical, but

considering employee numbers and the business owner will help come to a decision

quickly.

The main advantage of both LLC and S corporation is that they offer limited liability

protection; hence it’s advisable to protect your assets by forming an LLC. With LLC being

flexible and easy to manage, many people are attracted to LLC (Koss, 2007). S corporation

has a vast advantage over LLC in that they can acquire funds from investors and other money

lending institutions.

Contrary S corporations’ members can receive dividends that, in return, lower their

tax billing. When it comes to management, LLC members are privileged to manage and run

the business compared to S corporation. It’s there essential when forming a business entity to

consider factors that affect the operations. One key element is taxation, such that how does

the tax affects both the business and the employee. Another factor is to consider your sources

of capital; they are your investments or from other investors. Management and ownership are

also keys in choosing the business structure you wish to approach based on your type of

business. With the ease of formation, it is better to go with a design that you are free

to establish.

References

Koss, A. M. (2007). Best practice guidance for angel groups–deal structure and

negotiation. Angel Capital Angel Educational Foundation,

http://www.angelcapitalassociation.org/data/Documents/Resources/AngelCapitalEducation/

ACEF_BEST_PRACTICES_Deal_Structuring. pdf.

Lux, M. S., & McLean, S. A. (1998). The IRS Clears the Air on S Corporation

Subsidiaries-Proposed Regulations under Code Sec. 1361 (b)(3). J. Passthrough Entities, 1,

29.

Limited Partnership

Limited Partnership

Introduction

In limited partnership, limited partners have shares of ownership however, they do not take part to manage the partnership. They are neither liable for the amount which are greater than what they had invested in partnership. It contrasts to the general partners who play roles in daily operations of partnership, and are personally responsible for any liabilities of partnership. This paper therefore compares and contrasts the risks and benefits of being in a limited partnership in regards to corporate and partnership law.

In limited partnership, there tends to be some benefits or risks that a limited partner might face. One of the benefits of limited partnership for a limited partner is that, it is easier for the limited partnership to attract their investors since the capital that they invest in businesses is the liability for a limited partner. Limited partners on the other hand, benefits from the general partners by focusing the efforts they have in order for them to run the business. The limited partners also have the freedom to leave whenever they feel like, or they can be replaced with other people without the dissolving of the Limited partnership.

Other benefit of a limited partner is where, the partner benefits from simple operating structure. A partnership, as it is opposed to the corporation, seems to be simple to be established as well as, running it given that there are no forms which need to be filed or drafted. The partner only needs to file the certificate of partnership with the state office so as to register for the business name as well as, securing the license of that business. Because of that, annual filing corporation fees which are sometimes expensive are avoided when partnership is formed.

A limited partner also benefit in taxes advantage. In general partnership, there is flow of profit and loses from the business to the partners as compared to limited partnership, where taxes are levied on a limited partners’ income, though, a limited partner fails to experience the case, since they get to share the profits and losses as they participate in the business only (Stark, 2007).

A limited partner also benefits on liability limits in that, their liability for partnership’s debt is always limited to the money that individual partners contributes to partnership. This is different from the general partnership since any amount that is contributed usually becomes the asset of all the partners.

Another benefit of being in a limited partner is the benefit of flexibility. The decision can be easily made since the managers are the owners of the partnership when the business is small. It is different from the corporations where the shareholders, the directors, and the officers have some skilled knowledge of making decisions.

Conversely, there are some risks which a limited partner may indulge in when forming this kind of partnership. The limited partner may be risking in participating in limited partnership since they do not know whether there are chances of lack of making profit and whether there are clear guidelines that indicates who is doing what amongst the partners and how the business is to be conducted. The limited partner also risks given that there is no state regulations which are subjected to paperwork as compared to the general partnership (Goldstein, 2007).

The limited partner also risks on losing some benefits of limited partner status if they happen to take the active roles to conduct the activities of partnership, because of this, the general partners try to maintain the full personal risks. There is also a risk of a limited partner to just give out their capital contribution as it is provided in the agreement of partnership, however if the limited partners tends to participate in management of partnership business, the protected limited partner status may be lost and this makes it to become liable for all the risk (Haupt & Malange 2010).

Other risks include the risks of authority of partners. For example, when there is a contract and one partner happens to sign it, every other partner will fulfill it by bounding it legally. An example of this case is where by, one person who is in that partnership orders some computer equipments which are worth $ 5,000; it is as if his other partners placed the order too. However, if the business cannot afford to pay that bill, then the other members’ personal assets will be in line with the person who ordered for those computer equipments. This tends to be true even if the other partners are not aware of the contract (Goldstein, 2007).

References

Clarkson, K. W., Miller, R. L., & Cross, F. B. (2012). Business law: text and cases : legal, ethical, global, and corporate environment (12th ed.). London: South-Western Cengage Learning.

Goldstein, A. S. (2007). The limited partnership book. London: Garrett Pub..

Haupt, A., & Malange, N. J. (2010). Corporate law for commerce students: partnership, companies, and close corporations. London: Van Schaik Publishers.

Stark, K. J. (2007). Corporate and partnership income tax: code and regulations : selected sections (2007-2008 ed.). New York, N.Y.: Foundation Press.

Lindum Connection Road Project Existing Conditions Assessment

Lindum Connection Road Project:

5.2 Existing Conditions Assessment

5.2.1 Introduction

The LRO feasibility design is more or less concerned with making improvements on infrastructure provisions. The existing infrastructural facilities must therefore be appreciated and properly summarized. As Bowen, Kreuter and Fernandez (2010) and Tabish and Jha (2011) posit, this section is very crucial as it locates on plan to suitable scale and summarises the following existing infrastructure elements: Carriageways including channelization and line marking, layout of intersections, traffic control devises and signage, road hierarchy designation of all roads and streets, access to properties, car parking facilities, pedestrian facilities, cyclist/wheeled recreation device facilities, railway lines and stations, bus stops, and other transit infrastructure.

5.2.2 Summary of Existing Infrastructure Elements

The LRO project will affect the following existing roads sections: Lindum road, North road, Kianawah road, Tilley road, Mt. Cotton road, Grieve road, Rochedale road, Logan road, and Compton road (Bunker, 2013). The BCC road hierarchy classification perceives the LRO to be a major city distributor that provides connections between various communities and major centres within the Brisbane area (Brisbane City Council, 2008). Specifically, the B40 corridor connects major land uses within the Brisbane area, and has crucial public transport and freight transport functions.

The study area roadways can be characterised into the following traits. Frontage development types, posted speed limit and environmental capacity. The northern part of the Lindum road is light-med while the southern part of the road is light-med industrial drain. The road can allow speeds of up to 60 kilometres per hour. From an environmental capacity standpoint, the road can carry a nom. or 20,000 AADT. The western part of the North road is light industrial while the eastern part of the road is detached dwellings. This road can allow a speed of up to 60 kilometres per hour and a normal environmental capacity of 20,000 AADT. The northern part of Sibley road is local shops, railway station, while the southern part is local shops and detached dwellings. The road can allow speeds of up to 60 kilometres per hour and a normal environmental capacity of 20,000 AADT. On the other hand, the eastern part of Kianawah road is made up of detached dwellings while the western side is detached dwellings. Finally, and as Bunker (2013) shows, the road can allow speeds of up to 60 kilometres per hour and a normal 20,000 AADT environmental capacity.

Lindum road has a road reserve width of 20 metres, a cross section of 2 undivided lanes and channelization. Further, the road has a carriageway width of 7.5 to 12.0 metres, a normal lane width of 3.25 metres, an unmarked shoulder width, northern and southern flowing property accesses, and unmarked bicycle lanes. However, this road lacks footpaths. North road is much bigger than Lindum road in terms of size. This road (North road) has a 20 metres road reserve width, 2 undivided lanes, turn pocket, and channelization. In addition, this road has a 12.0 metres wide carriageway, a normal 6.0 metres wide lane, unmarked shoulders, eastern and western flowing property accesses, unmarked bicycle lanes, and concrete paved footpaths. On the other hand, Sibley road has 20 metres wide road reserve, 2 undivided lanes and channelization, 8.0 to 12.0 metres of carriageway, a normal 4.0 metres of normal lane, unmarked shoulders, northern and southern flowing property accesses, unmarked bicycle lanes and concrete paved footpaths. As Bunker (2013) shows, Kianawah road has a 20 metres of road reserve, 2 lanes and channelization cross section, 10.5 to 12.0 metres wide carriageway, normal 5.0 wide lanes, unmarked shoulders, eastern and western flowing property accesses, unmarked bicycle lanes, concrete paved footpaths.

The study area has public transport 223 and 224 bus routes. Route 223 is neighbours the 006193 Lindum Station and Sibley while route 224 neighbours 006194 Lindum Station and Sibley road (Brisbane City Council, 2009). Both routes are 2 minutes walking time, but route 223 has a clockwise loop orientation while route 224 has an anti-clockwise loop orientation. Both routes has their terminus at Wynnum Plaza, but route 223 takes between 39 to 55 minutes in travel time while route 224 takes between 35 to 55 minutes in travel time. During weekday peak frequency, it takes 45 minutes for route 223 and 40 minutes for 224, however, it takes the same amount of time (60 minutes) for both routes during off peak weekday frequency. The weekday hours of service are between 07:01 and 18:05 for route 223 and between 07:22 and 18:17 for route 224. Saturday’s frequency is 60 minutes for both routes while Saturday hours of service is between 08:51 and 16:54 for route 223 and between 08:27 and 16:29 for route 224. According to Bunker (2013), there is no Sunday frequency and Sunday hours of service for route 223 while the Sunday frequency for route 224 is 60 minutes and its Sunday hours of service is between 08:27 and 16:29.

The study area public transport Cleveland rail schedule is not as complex. During peak periods it takes about 35 minutes to travel by train to central station, while it takes 7.5 minutes during weekday frequency (Brisbane City Council, 2009). During off peak periods it takes about 34 minutes travel by train to central station, and between 30 and 20 minutes during weekday frequency. Weekday hours of service is between 05:18 and 00:20 (01:19F) while Saturday frequency is 30 minutes and Saturday hours of service is between 05:21 and 01:19. Lastly, Bunker (2013) shows that the study area Sunday frequency is either 60 minutes or 30 minutes and Sunday hours of service are between 06:51 and 23:19.

5.2.3 Conclusion

This section of the LRO feasibility design has captured the existing infrastructure facilities within the study area. It captures the various roads that will be affected by the project, that is, the Lindum road, North road, Kianawah road, Tilley road, Mt. Cotton road, Grieve road, Rochedale road, Logan road, and Compton road. These roads are further characterised into frontage development types, posted speed limit and environmental capacity. Specifically, the Lindum road, North road, Sibley road, and Kianawah road have an assortment of physical attributes including detached dwellings and industrial drains. These roads support public transport bus routes and public transport Cleveland rail routes which serves the study area throughout the clock.

References

Bowen, D.J., Kreuter, M., and Fernandez, M. (2010). How we design feasibility studies. Am. J. Prev. Med., 38(5): 452-457.

Brisbane City Council (2008). Wynnum West neighborhood plan. [Online], Available at: http://www.brisbane.qld.gov.au/planning-building/planning-guidelines-and-tools/city-plan-zones-codes/city-plan-2000-document/chapter-4-local-plans/ (Accessed September 08, 2013).

Brisbane City Council (2009). Wynnum-Manly West neighborhood plan. [Online], Available at: http://www.brisbane.qld.gov.au/planning-building/planning-guidelines-and-tools/city-plan-zones-codes/city-plan-2000-document/chapter-4-local-plans/ (Accessed September 08, 2013).

Bunker, J. (2013). ENB476 civil design project: Lindum rail overpass feasibility design study. Queensland University of Technology Press.

Tabish, S.Z.S. and Jha, K.N. (2011). Important factors for success of public construction projects. 11th International Conference on Construction and Project Management IPEDR, 15: 64-68.

List of Values

List of Values

Abundance

Acceptance

Accessibility

Accomplishment

Accountability

Accuracy

Achievement

Acknowledgement

Activeness

Adaptability

Adoration

Adroitness

Advancement

Adventure

Affection

Affluence

Aggressiveness

Agility

Alertness

Altruism

Amazement

Ambition

Amusement

Anticipation

Appreciation

Approachability

Approval

Art

Articulacy

Artistry

Assertiveness

Assurance

Attentiveness

Attractiveness

Audacity

Availability

Awareness

Awe

Balance

Beauty

Being the best

Belonging

Benevolence

Bliss

Boldness

Bravery

Brilliance

Buoyancy

Calmness

Camaraderie

Candor

Capability

Care

Carefulness

Celebrity

Certainty

Challenge

Change

Charity

Charm

Chastity

Cheerfulness

Clarity

Cleanliness

Clear-mindedness

Cleverness

Closeness

Comfort

Commitment

Community

Compassion

Competence

Competition

Completion

Composure

Concentration

Confidence

Conformity

Congruency

Connection

Consciousness

Conservation

Consistency

Contentment

Continuity

Contribution

Control

Conviction

Conviviality

Coolness

Cooperation

Cordiality

Correctness

Country

Courage

Courtesy

Craftiness

Creativity

Credibility

Cunning

Curiosity

Daring

Decisiveness

Decorum

Deference

Delight

Dependability

Depth

Desire

Determination

Devotion

Devoutness

Dexterity

Dignity

Diligence

Direction

Directness

Discipline

Discovery

Discretion

Diversity

Dominance

Dreaming

Drive

Duty

Dynamism

Eagerness

Ease

Economy

Ecstasy

Education

Effectiveness

Efficiency

Elation

Elegance

Empathy

Encouragement

Endurance

Energy

Enjoyment

Entertainment

Enthusiasm

Environmentalism

Ethics

Euphoria

Excellence

Excitement

Exhilaration

Expectancy

Expediency

Experience

Expertise

Exploration

Expressiveness

Extravagance

Extroversion

Exuberance

Fairness

Faith

Fame

Family

Fascination

Fashion

Fearlessness

Ferocity

Fidelity

Fierceness

Financial independence

Firmness

Fitness

Flexibility

Flow

Fluency

Focus

Fortitude

Frankness

Freedom

Friendliness

Friendship

Frugality

Fun

Gallantry

Generosity

Gentility

Giving

Grace

Gratitude

Gregariousness

Growth

Guidance

Happiness

Harmony

Health

Heart

Helpfulness

Heroism

Holiness

Honesty

Honor

Hopefulness

Hospitality

Humility

Humor

Hygiene

Imagination

Impact

Impartiality

Independence

Individuality

Industry

Influence

Ingenuity

Inquisitiveness

Insightfulness

Inspiration

Integrity

Intellect

Intelligence

Intensity

Intimacy

Intrepidness

Introspection

Introversion

Intuition

Intuitiveness

Inventiveness

Investing

Involvement

Joy

Judiciousness

Justice

Keenness

Kindness

Knowledge

Leadership

Learning

Liberation

Liberty

Lightness

Liveliness

Logic

Longevity

Love

Loyalty

Majesty

Making a difference

Marriage

Mastery

Maturity

Meaning

Meekness

Mellowness

Meticulousness

Mindfulness

Modesty

Motivation

Mysteriousness

Nature

Neatness

Nerve

NoncomformityObedience

Open-mindedness

Openness

Optimism

Order

Organization

Originality

Outdoors

Outlandishness

Outrageousness

Partnership

Patience

Passion

Peace

Perceptiveness

Perfection

Perkiness

Perseverance

Persistence

Persuasiveness

Philanthropy

Piety

Playfulness

Pleasantness

Pleasure

Poise

Polish

Popularity

Potency

Power

Practicality

Pragmatism

Precision

Preparedness

Presence

Pride

Privacy

Proactivity

Professionalism

Prosperity

Prudence

Punctuality

Purity

Rationality

Realism

Reason

Reasonableness

Recognition

Recreation

Refinement

Reflection

Relaxation

Reliability

Relief

Religiousness

Reputation

Resilience

Resolution

Resolve

Resourcefulness

Respect

Responsibility

Rest

Restraint

Reverence

Richness

Rigor

Sacredness

Sacrifice

Sagacity

Saintliness

Sanguinity

Satisfaction

Science

Security

Self-control

Selflessness

Self-reliance

Self-respect

Sensitivity

Sensuality

Serenity

Service

Sexiness

Sexuality

Sharing

Shrewdness

Significance

Silence

Silliness

Simplicity

Sincerity

Skillfulness

Solidarity

Solitude

Sophistication

Soundness

Speed

Spirit

Spirituality

Spontaneity

Spunk

Stability

Status

Stealth

Stillness

Strength

Structure

Success

Support

Supremacy

Surprise

Sympathy

Synergy

Teaching

Teamwork

Temperance

Thankfulness

Thoroughness

Thoughtfulness

Thrift

Tidiness

Timeliness

Traditionalism

Tranquility

Transcendence

Trust

Trustworthiness

Truth

Understanding

Unflappability

Uniqueness

Unity

Usefulness

Utility

Valor

Variety

Victory

Vigor

Virtue

Vision

Vitality

Vivacity

Volunteering

WarmheartednessWarmth

Watchfulness

Wealth

Willfulness

Willingness

Winning

Wisdom

Wittiness

Wonder

Worthiness

Youthfulness

Zeal

Litchfield Corporation

Litchfield Corporation

Student’s name

Instructor

Affiliation

Course

Date

Litchfield Corporation makes sales within US and plans to diversify and make exports to UK. Hence a fully owned subsidiary in the UK is ideal. The production cost of Litchfield products is $ 15 per unit and the prospected price shall be $25 per unit making a profit of $10.when the corporation decides to sell to UK subsidiary thee same price as production, it will not make any profit in the US and therefore it will not have any income tax. However in UK, the sales will earn a $10 of profit. UK has lower tax rate and the corporation opts to pay the rate here compared to the US as it is lower thus Income tax in UK is 28% which is less with 7% compared to US. Any small consideration given to tax issues, will offer Litchfield Corporation as the US exporter the opportunity to reduce the income tax liability and positively helping them to sidestep foreign income tax liability.

Litchfield Corporation should consider the tax issues that relate to UK foreign country income taxation, state income taxation and US federal income taxation. In this case Litchfield Corporation is a US exporter and its exports sales to the foreign buyers is made through subsidiaries in United Kingdom. The IRS demands a sales pricing made by any US exporter to the related party. Therefore the exporters cannot invade income taxation of their profits but can defer it by establishing a subsidiary. When the Litchfield corporation decides to have a subsidiary, it splits its export profits into two thus; the first one, export profit from their sales in the US which is US federal income tax and the second one, export profits from the subsidiary’s sales to the foreign buyers which can only be a subject to US federal tax after it has been distributed in form of dividend.

In addition this corporation can exempt a part of its export profits form the US federal income taxation when it establishes a foreign sales corporation (FSC). The exemption will enable Litchfield Corporation that are FSC shareholders to successfully lower the US federal income tax rate that applies alongside their merged export profits.

References

Ault, H. J., & Bradford, D. F. (1990). Taxing international income: An analysis of the US system

And its economic premises. In Taxation in the global economy (pp. 11-52). University of Chicago Press.

Income tax regulations: Including proposed regulations as of May 1, 2008. (2008). Chicago, IL:

CCH.

Larkins, E. R. (2004). International applications of U.S. income tax law: Inbound and outbound

Transactions. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

Literacy Habits

Literacy Habits

Student’s name

Institution of affiliation

Instructor

Course

Date

Literacy Habits

Compare and contrast your literacy habits with your peers, family members, or other person or group you are very familiar with.

As Nicholas Carr argues in his book, people in the present world are indeed moving away from book reading and newspaper reading which need a lot f brain energy to process and understand. This kind f lifestyle, even though perfect for a person who is in a hurry, Carr states that it is not all utterly healthy as people do not realize what they are getting themselves in but rather get themselves into it because of the ease of the ability to enhance a person’s knowledge beyond the mere reading (Carr, 2020). Therefore, with this kind of technology at the service of most people, it becomes challenging for them to retreat to books which are mainly considered only fashion in the current society. This paper discusses the distinction between the two types of intelligence obtained either through the internet or through books using my example and my sister.

In the book ‘The Shallows,’ Carr focuses on discussing two types of intelligence, which brings out a clear comparison between the age of computers and the age of print media. He states that during the period of print media, life was more productive and healthier. These can be attributed to the fact that people used to read in-depth stories and books during print media. Through this reading, the ability to conceptualize a situation and understand concepts was achievable. Therefore, he suggests even though the present-day presents itself with new technology, it is not the best method of studying anything which needs a person’s total concentration and complete comprehension of what is required to be understood.

The new technology of the internet and computers presents itself with brevity which at times is not healthy for a person to read since the deep concepts which are found in books are removed when it comes to the internet because of speed and the ability to read something is what is needed most in the current world (Carr, 2020). However, in the desire to be perfect and brief, the real meaning of intelligence is lost. This is the exact argument I have had with my younger sister for an extended period. She thinks that she can find everything there and read because she has a smartphone and a tablet. However, my perspective is different since I have interacted with the gadgets, and I would support Carr in his argument that the devices we now own are taking so much away from us. I tried studying using a tablet, and I thought the information I was getting was perfect for a long time. However, with time I realized how much I was losing.

The intelligence deficiency came from remembering how my dad read me bedtime stories and encouraged me to read novels. I had connected with these stories to a deep level. When I began using my tablet to study, I realized that the stories and the news and the information I read from the internet did not have a deep connection or information I needed. Therefore, I shifted towards print media for studies. This has been one of my most outstanding achievements since my brain is fully involved, and I can fully relate to the issues presented in a hardcopy book. My sister continues to boast of how good she is at the internet and how it helps her study better since she can quickly google content that she does not know. However, even though our literacy habits are opposed, I have lived both paths, and I am hoping she will come around with time.

Reference

Carr, N. (2020). The shallows: What the Internet is doing to our brains. WW Norton & Company.

Light for Algae and B. braunii Growth.

Light for Algae and B. braunii Growth.

Name

Instructor

Date

Light is an important physical element in the growth of Algae and Botryococcus braunii. Different research work conducted have an average light intensity of 60 W/M², with a light period of 12 hours per day but this may vary from one specie to another by some degree ( Jian,2005). Different strains of B.braunii have been found in different countries such as China Japan and UK with more focus being on physical requirement of B. braunii (China strain 1) which is found in China. The determination of light intensity for the B. braunii strain involved use of two ranges of light intensity; low and high light intensity and examining the effect of the light intensities on their growth under 23 °C and 12 hour light and another 12 hour dark period using four different light intensities; 8, 12, 20 and 30 W/m2with three replicates at each level of light intensity. Another second experiment involved the exposure of the algae to 30, 60, 100, 150, 200 and 300 W/m2 with three replicates and then assessing the samples after a period of two weeks. The results from these experiments showed a great variation as most of the algae cells under 30 W/m2 light intensity died and the cultivation colour also turned brown under 8 and 12 W/m2. The results also showed that under 30 W/m2, the algal generation time (G) was shortest at about (3.85 ± 0.12 days), but the proliferous rate for the algal (K) was greatest at (0.078 ± 0.002). The experiment for higher light intensity range showed that the 30 and 60 W/m2 treatments were more suitable to algal culture than high light intensities. Under high light intensities of over 150 W/m2 the algae were bound by filamentous bacteria in some flasks. Algae exposed to 300 W/m2 light intensity died.

From these experiments, the most important finding was that algae cultured under lower illumination, could reduce hydrocarbon production by these algae (Chirac et al.1985). The China 1 strain was found to be able to survive in light intensities of between 30 and 100 W/m2 for good growth. Other research work have also shown that light intensities in the range of between 15 and 180 W/m2 is capable of stimulating an adequate growth with a doubling time of between 5 and 2.5 days for 15 and 180 W/m2 light intensities respectively (Vladislay et al. (1994). Light intensity of less than 30 W/m2 inhibits algae growth. Light intensity also affects the lipid content of the algae which decreases when the light intensity is above 100 W/m2 due to low biomass and availability of fewer hydrocarbon droplets. Different studies have therefore shown that the optimal light intensity for the China 1 strain is between 30 and 60 W/m2 (Lagreau et al. 1980)

References.

Chirac,C., Casadevall,E., Largeau, C. & Metzger,P. (1985). Bacterial influence upon growth and hydrocarbon production of the green alga Botrococcus braunii. Journal of Phycology,21, 380-387.

Jian, Q. (2005). Bio -Hydrocarbons from Algae: Impacts of temperature, light and salinity on algae growth. Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation, Australia.

Largeau, C., Casadevall, E., Dif, D. & Berkaloff, C. (1980). Renewable hydrocarbon production from the agla Botryococcus braunii, p. 653-658, Publisher:London.

Vladislay,C., Jaromír, L. (1994). The effect of high irradiances on growth, biosynthetic activities and the ultrastructure of the green alga Botryococcus braunii strain Droop 1950/807-1. Journal of Archiv fur hydrobiology, 115-131.