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The case-based learning solution

Final Topic

Presented by

Institution

Introduction

Knowledge of learning theories is fundamental to all leaders who want to be successful in their businesses. The following is a design of a case-based learning solution for non-learning leaders wanting to understand learning theory. Most people who own businesses have an urge to learn and understand how to effectively manage a business but lack the necessary learning materials and tools. On the other hand, technology has created a lot of impact on every aspect of modern life. Computers are currently used to control every daily operation. The excessive use of technology in all aspects of life has made many people miss some basic educational needs because they have low technology level (Tainio, Lilja & Santalainen, 2003). This case-based learning solution will take care of all people in the society irrespective of their understanding of technology to enable them complete the learning theory course effectively.

The case-based learning solution

Demonstration of theory and practice

A learning organization presents many and diverse methods of gathering and managing knowledge. Most organizations make an assumption on learning theories arguing that the context of what is contained in a learning lesson is connected to the fundamental of the theory (Lane 2001). The outcomes, objectives and goals of learning should be directed towards clear understanding of learning theories. When designing a learning solution for leaders, one should consider several factors. Firstly, the technology level of an individual is of great importance. Not all people are computer literate therefore; the lessons created should use other means of presenting ideas apart from the computer. In most circumstances, MS word and PowerPoint are used for designing most lessons but in cases where the leaders’ technology level is low, hand written charts could serve well. Cognitive learning theory and research gives a better solution on how to design instructions that enhances leader-learning skills. Based on the educational level of the learner, the cognitive learning theory provides a learner with an opportunity to learn something new and the new approaches towards attaining the learning objectives.

Secondly, the learning solution should demonstrate design theory and practice. The lessons should be designed in way that they not only cover the content on the learning theory and design but also focuses on its application. Learning theory in practice enables leaders to demonstrate high levels of understanding and make use of that knowledge in running organizations. The instructor’s goal will be to understand the demands of the topic sand the needs of a learner in order to offer a learning experience that gives the learner an opportunity to excel in life. Education forms the primary method of social progress and reform. The experience acquired in learning has a lot of impact in the social life of a leader and helps to bring about changes in a society. According to Constructivism theory, a learner’s personal understanding comes from the knowledge gained in a learning process facilitated by using appropriate learning activities and good environment (Kim, 2005).

Learning tools

As discussed above, this is the development of a learning program for non-learning leaders wanting to understand learning theories. Various tools aid in the learning process although, the tools used on this context should consider the technology level of learners. Technology forms an important part of the day to day live because it has revolutionized communication and learning patterns. Most learning lessons today are planned and written using high-tech materials introduced in the learning institutions. In addition, the business environment is extremely challenging today and leaders are using the upcoming innovations in making their boosting businesses. This creates a challenge to people who have low education level and are unable to utilize the modern technology. The following learning process will create a solution for such people since appropriate tools will be used in teaching them. To ensure learners get home the taught lessons, various tools such as charts, demonstrations, and video presentations will be used. In cases where MS word and PowerPoint presentation is used, an instructor will be available to guide learners on how to use the computers (Lawrence, 2003).

Outcome

On the other hand, the outcome of the learning process should be substantial and effective to leaders. Learning theories play a great role in shaping the life of leaders in terms of making them realize various opportunities found in the business world. The outcome of the teaching process should give learners enough competence to be able to develop their businesses and people. After learning, leaders should be able to accomplish the following. Firstly, the leader should be in a position to make an observation and learn from it. This process makes use of the skills and knowledge acquired in class to understand various aspects of an organization through observation. Secondly, the learner’s social behavior should change whereby; the environment plays a significant role in the change. Behavior change is measured by performances of individuals through display of learned tasks (Means, 2009).

Length of learning

The length of the learning process depends on the capacity of a leader to understand the theories being taught. Most leaders today whose technology levels are low can attend a learning theory class until they gain whatever they need irrespective of the time taken. The class time for each theory class will be commanded by the understanding level of a leader. In most cases involving non-learning leaders, lessons are determined by the level of understanding. In order to ensure learners achieve the objectives and goals of learning, the following steps are necessary. In addition, learners will be evaluated to determine how well they cope with the learning and highlight learning theories that require more time to teach. Moreover, the instructors will make use of several deliverables that describe how the learning process will be carried out. The participants manual and instructors manual will be designed to assist leaders in learning and save the instructor’s time for explanations. Where slides are used, several examples will be demonstrated to enable learners get every content of the learning theory.

First, only learning theories that are easier to implement will be applied first. Eventually, other theories will be introduced as time goes on. This step encourages and promotes learner’s outcome as they develop more learning skills. Secondly, secondly, the learners’ evaluation will be carried out when the mind is fresh. This should take place probably in the morning hours. The evaluation will assist the instructor in determining theories that worked, those that did not work, and areas needing additional teaching.

Conclusion

Design of a case-based learning solution for non-learning leaders wanting to understand learning theories is a hard task requiring a lot of input and resources. Non-learning leaders possess low levels of education and take long to absorb a point making it difficult to plan their lessons. From the above plan, several factors have been considered in designing the case-based learning solution. These are the intended audience, the level of technology, demonstration of design theory and practice, tools, outcomes, and length of learning.

References

 Kim. (2005). “The Effects of a Constructivist Teaching Approach on Student Academic Achievement, Self-Concept, and Learning Strategies”. Asia Pacific Education Review 6 (1): 7–19.

Lawrence, T. A. (2003). Challenges of Teaching with Technology Across the Curriculum: Issues

and Solutions. London: Information Science.

Leonard, D. C. (2002). Learning theories, A to Z. Westport, Conn.: Oryx Press.

Mearns, J. (2009). Social learning theory. In H. Reis & S. Sprecher (Eds.), Encyclopedia of

human relationships (vol. 3). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. pp. 1537-1540.

Tainio, R, Lilja, K., & Santalainen, T. J. (2003). In M. Dierkes, A. Berthoin Antal, J. Child & I.

Nonaka (Eds.), Handbook of organizational leadership and knowledge. New York: Oxford University Press, Inc. pp. 428-445.

The world economy is influenced by both economic and no-economic factors (Schumpeter, 2017),

Finance

Students Name

Institution of Affiliation

Course Title

Date

The world economy is influenced by both economic and no-economic factors (Schumpeter, 2017), and therefore there is a need to keep a check on all the aspects that may affect the growth of the economy. Various non-economic factors are responsible for the increase or the fall of the economy of different countries around the globe. Some of these factors include; war, corruption, political instability, technology, government laws and regulations, education as well as innovations and training.

War is one of the factors that lead to the decline of peace within a nation or even the overall world peace and thus have a direct effect on the growth of the world economy (Duffield, 2014). Peace is deemed to be one of the major factors that encourage investments and as well favors trade between nations. With the disruption of peace, there will be tensions within the globe that will discourage investments and trade as well. Political stability, on the other hand, contributes to peace, and therefore political stability should be encouraged within nations to ensure their prosperity in business and the overall economy (Borner, Brunetti & Weder, 2016).

Corruption is directly related to the decline of the economic growth of a country because the money and resources that are deemed for development are pocketed by individuals, and therefore development is left to lag behind. The slow progress of the country discourages investment leading to low injections to the country’s economy. Technology, on the other hand, influences the mode of production, as well as the provision of services and therefore the more improved the technology, is the easier the production and service delivery.

Government laws and regulations play a significant role in the growth of an economy. Favorable laws and policies attract investments especially when there are subsidies for the provision of services. The development of regulations that favor business such as less taxation encourages investments contributing to higher production and the overall increase in the GDP of the country. Education and training equip the people with the necessary skills for the establishment of businesses. Innovations leads to the development of new technologies as well as the production of new types of goods and services that lead to the satisfaction of people’s needs and therefore for the fulfillment of human needs, creativity and innovation leads to the development of entrepreneurship to which increase the business ventures and the overall GDP of a country (Acs, Szerb, & Lloyd, 2017).

References

Acs, Z. J., Szerb, L., & Lloyd, A. (2017). The global entrepreneurship and development index. In Global Entrepreneurship and Development Index 2017 (pp. 29-53). Springer, Cham.

Borner, S., Brunetti, A., & Weder, B. (2016). Political credibility and economic development. Springer.

Duffield, M. (2014). Global governance and the new wars: the merging of development and security. Zed Books Ltd..

Schumpeter, J. A. (2017). Theory of economic development. Routledge.

This report includes some of the basic principles and conventions that must be adhered to while preparing the financial state

Financial Accounting

Name

Course

Course Instructor

Date

Table of Contents_______________________________________________________Page

1. Executive Summary…………………………………………………………………….2

2.1 Accrual Accounting……………………………………………………………………2

2.2 Going Concern…………………………………………………………………………3

3. Key Accounting Concepts and Conventions…………………………………………..4

4. Marks & Spencer’s treatment of PPE, Intangible assets and provisions……………5

5. Impact of Impairment on Marks & Spencer’s Finance Performance………………6

6. References………………………………………………………………………………..7

1. Executive Summary

This report includes some of the basic principles and conventions that must be adhered to while preparing the financial statements. It includes analysis and evaluation of some of the accounting practices and conventions. This report also analyses and evaluates some of the accounting practices in Marks & Spencer Plc.

2.1 Accrual Accounting

Accrual concept includes recognition of revenue when earned while expenses are only acknowledged when they are suffered or incurred. This accounting concept needs creation of an extra account that records the variance obtained from the difference between revenue and expenses recognized as well as reception or payments of cash. Accounts receivable is normally used in recording accrued incomes while deferred revenue account is used to record revenue not earned (Banerjee 2005, p. 4-5).

On the other hand, accrued expense account is used in recording expenses before payment of cash while deferred expense account is used in recording expenses after paying cash. This type of accounting concept is very expensive and that it is possible for the account to owe taxes on their income even before the cash is received. In marks & Spencer income is recognized when the products are sent to the customers and important risks and title incentives are shifted to the client. The deferred tax is accounted for after calculating it based on anticipated way of realization. The company also has trade receivables account and trade payables (Banerjee 2005, p. 4-5).

2.2 Going Concern

Going concern is regarded as one of the most important assumptions in accounting used in preparation of final accounts with an assumption that the business will continue to operate in the next foreseeable future. The company is expected to successfully settle their liabilities after realizing their assets. It is always upon the management of the company to check on the ability of the organization to continue doing business in the coming future. The accounts of Marks & Spencer are prepared in the basis of going concern and the directors are convinced that the company will be able to operate in the next future. The directors are very much concerned that there are no uncertainties that may interfere with the company’s operations in their future (Gibson 2012, p.11-12).

The company managed to make a profit of $458 as at March 2013 and positive cash and cash equivalents. The company’s current assets also exceed the current liabilities thus showing an element of going concern. The company is also in a position of paying out her dividends and financing The company will not likely to fail in its operations in the near future considering her statement of financial position and the consolidated income statement (Marks & Spencer 2013, p. 1-3). There are a number of indications of a going concern business which are not reflected in the financial statement of Marks & Spencer. Some of the dangerous signs indicating challenges of going concern are poor liquidity positions, high financial risk and delay in payments as well as serious litigations affecting the company. Marks & Spencer do not also have any indication of defaulting by one of their chief customers that may eventually affect her operations (Gibson 2012, p.11-12).

3. Key Accounting Concepts and Conventions

There are universal ways of presenting accounting information to the relevant parties. These conventions are very useful in doing away with inconsistency that may be experienced while recording accounting data. Relevance is one of the conventions that insist on disclosing only the information that is relevant as far as achievement of the business objective is concerned. Relevancy deals mostly with items whose nature and amount are significant in a way that they can influence the decision making process of the financial statement’s users. The convention may also be referred to as the materiality concept and is very important as it may greatly affect the accounting record and the nature of business (Weil, Schipper & Francis 2013, p. 24-25).

This accounting concept is very vital as it is based on anticipation of loss but not profit. It provides that income must not be overstated while preparing the books of accounts although any loss anticipated must be accounted for. It is important to include some anticipated losses such as discount on debtors, depreciation and creation for doubtful debt. The other convention is full disclosure concept which posits that all important substantial and pertinent facts regarding financial statements must be entirely revealed. Accounting information must be thorough, logical and appropriate. Financial statement should include detailed presentation of accounting information such as investors, accounts receivables, accounts payables and shareholders (Needles, Powers & Crosson 2011, p. 185-190).

Furthermore, there is objectivity concept that states accounting data ought to be measured and articulated by the principles that are globally suitable. Feasibility concept states that the period, labor and cost of investigating accounting data ought to be compared to the profit coming out of it. In addition, consistency convention is another form of accounting concept which implies that accounting standards should be applied while preparing financial statements yearly. This is very important when it comes to comparability of different accounting periods. Similar accounting processes and practices should always be applied constantly in every financial year to facilitate comparability process (Weil, Schipper & Francis 2013, p. 24-25).

4. Marks & Spencer’s treatment of PPE, Intangible assets and provisions

Property, plant and equipment in Marks & Spencer’s costs are recorded at a cost excluding depreciation as well as exclusion of impairment in accordance with conservatism theory. This concept is very important since it avoids overstatement of profit and also recognizes anticipated loss as required. The company does not revalue her property while doing their accounts although assets available as a result of construction are recorded at cost minus impairment cost. Marks & Spencer has a policy of depreciating her noncurrent assets after subtracting residual values Marks & Spencer 2013, p. 2-6). The organization do not depreciate her freehold land but the freehold and leasehold buildings whose remaining lease term is more than 50 years are depreciated by taking residual value and dividing by anticipated economic life of the property (Greuning 2009, p. 92-100).

However, the leasehold building with period below 50 years are normally depreciated as per the outstanding time of lease. Equipment, furniture and fitting with between 3 and 25 years. Marks & Spencer usually ensure that they review their policy of impairing property, plant and equipment if there are some instances that prove that the carrying amount cannot be recovered. This always prompts the management of the company comes up with an amount that ought to be recovered basing on conventions and estimations. The depreciation of the property, plant and equipment is normally done in this company in writing down the assets to the remaining value divided by the property plant and Equipment anticipated useful live (Oppermann 2008, p. 64-70).

5. Impact of Impairment on Marks & Spencer’s Finance Performance.

In the previous year Marks & Spencer impaired the carrying amount of Marinopolous B.V goodwill and other stores in Greek whose branches make do not make profit to show the value that can be recovered and the net book value. Impairment has several impacts on the financial position of various businesses and therefore should be taken seriously. Any loss for an asset due to impairment should be charged on the asset in question and further disclose the notes of impairment to the financial statements stating the assets and reasons for the action (Robinson 2012, p. 512-516).

Impairment loss and write offs of an asset is likely to reduce both the net income as well as the non-current asset’s value. The reduction of income statement through charging the impairment loss has an effect of reducing the shareholders’ equity and eventually lowering debt to equity as debt to asset goes high. It is also likely that Marks & Spencer’s expected net income may go high because the value of the asset must have been reduced through impairment loss. The total impairment for the year ended 31 March 2013 for the Marks & Spencer company was £m 44.9 (marks & Spencer 2013, p. 17-19). This means that the income was reduced by £m44.9 and the value of assets were also decreased by the same value. Eventually the effect of impairment would mean that income is not overstated but expenses are recognized as anticipated.

References

Banerjee, A 2005, Financial Accounting: A Mangerial Emphasis, [S.L.], Excel.

Gibson, Charles H 2012, Financial Reporting and Analysis + Thomsonone Printed Access Card South-Western Pub.

Greuning, V 2009, International Financial Reporting Standards: A Practical Guide, Washington (D.C.), World Bank.

Marks & Spencer, 2013, Notes to the financial statements, retrieved 27 August 2013, <http://annualreport.marksandspencer.com/docs/MS_AR2013_p82-109_NotestoFS.pdf>.Needles, Powers, & Crosson, V 2011, Principles of Accounting, Mason, Ohio, Cengage Learning.Oppermann, B 2008, Accounting Standards in Brief, Lansdowne [South Africa], Juta.Robinson, R 2012, International financial statement analysis, Hoboken, N.J, John Wiley & Sons.

Weil, L., Schipper, K., & Francis, J 2013, Financial accounting: an introduction to concepts, methods, and uses, Mason, Ohio, South-Western.

RSW1126-04

Fintech Set Up

Student’s Name

Course Code and Number

Instructor’s Name

Date of Submission

Executive summary

The latest advancements and quick expansion of new banking and finance by financial technology (Fintech) businesses has compelled financial institutions to pursue operational innovation to maintain a sustainable competitive edge in their respective industries. They are often non-financial organizations that offer cutting-edge financial services to their clients. The purpose of this paper is set up an autonomous division of a multinational bank that will compete in the disruptive Fintech revolution. From a managerial standpoint, the paper will critically assess different concepts that are essential to make the autonomous division successful.

Introduction

Fintech, a hybrid concept that integrates the words “finance” and “technology,” refers to the combination of finance with developing technologies like artificial intelligence (AI), cloud computing, big data, among other things. User-friendly financial services like mobile money services, crowdsourcing, peer-to-peer lending and borrowing, insurance, and management of wealth are made available as a result of this pairing. Rapid progress in information technology, along with the subprime crisis of 2008, produced a protracted worldwide economic slump. Because of this, governments throughout the globe are aggressively supporting the adoption of a new financial paradigm, which has led in the formation of a slew of Fintech businesses with examples of firms such as JD Finance, Kabbage, Ant Financial, LendingClub, OnDeck, and Apple Pay.

Innovation to Enhance competitiveness

New Customer Interaction

Customers’ participation in value co-creation is emphasized in the new customer interaction, which also highlights that innovation is developed via engagements between financial service providers and the consumers.

New Business Partners

The utilization of associate’s assets and resources by an organisation to create innovative services may be characterized as the creation of new business associates. The notion of co-opetition was presented by Brandenburger and Nalebuff, who underlined that firms that adopt the co-opetition method should integrate one another’s fundamental advantages while competing to establish new opportunities in order to succeed.

New Revenue Models

The development of new revenue models is concerned with the institutional changes that are required to support service innovation. To do this, an effective method to distributing objectives, sharing expenses, and generating profits must be adopted.

Technological Innovation

Financial and technological innovation are intertwined, and the use of new technologies to enhance the effectiveness of financial services while also reducing expenses and controlling risks are at the forefront of technological innovation.

To attain the aforementioned competitive initiatives, there are management aspects that ought to be enhanced such as leadership, human resource management and change management.

Leadership

Fintech technologies provide clients with tailored and interactive services, as well as having progressive-minded executives is a vital success component in achieving success. Organizations that want to take advantage of the digital disruption of financial services require executives that have a progressive attitude and foresight in order to give workable responses to new business issues and opportunities.

Human Resource Management

Emerging requirements and issues concerning the management of human resources in a technological environment have impacted practically every business, but there is a particularly pressing issue in the financial sector. The advent of FinTech pushes human resource managers to sift through the most effective strategies that would welcome innovation while still encouraging employees to strive for personal growth. Furthermore, because technology is at the heart of these organizations, human resources must stay up with contemporary Human resource management practices as well as platforms when it comes to attracting, motivating, and keeping employees. Technology development is one of the most significant new issues in human resource management.

Change management

In the financial business, change management has risen to emerge as among the most significant subjects to discuss. For some years, the market situation for banks and financial firms has been experiencing significant transformation. Organization s in the financial industry face significant problems as a result of the low interest rate environment, increased regulatory requirements, continuous digitization, and the rapid expansion of the fintech industry.

Conclusion

References

Results

First Name Last Name

Professor

English 1111 1111

1 Jan. 2111

Results

The LSC System must adjust to a budget cut and reduce their expenses. The college is trying to get rid of student services that students rarely use or students find wasteful. Our research must discover whether one student services should be removed, reduced, or preserved. So we decided to take a survey of twenty students of the LSC System and ask them face-to-face whether the LSC system should make the EDUC 1300 course mandatory, optional, or get rid of it. Getting rid of a requirement may reduce expenses of instructor salaries, but it may reduce school income.

We took a survey amongst twenty random students of the LSC-NH campus regarding EDUC 1300. The questionnaire consisted of 10 questions in total which included nine closed questions and one open question. Our primary goal was to determine if students find the EDUC 1300 course beneficial or not and if it should be mandatory or not.

Should EDUC 1300 course be mandatory? Yes No

Number of Students 3 17

Should the LSC get rid of EDUC 1300 course? Yes No

Number of students 15 5

The above table indicates the result of questions 4 and 5 respectively. In response to question 4, we found out that out that almost all the students think that the EDUC 1300 course should not be mandatory. Also in response to question 5, most number of students suggests that the LSC system should get rid of the EDUC 1300 course if the LSC had a budget cut on any of the student services. These results were consistent with our expectations.

Would you recommend this course to someone else? Yes No

Number of Students 11 9

However, we found that even though most of the students didn’t like this course, they would still recommend this course to a friend or a relative. More than 50% stated they would recommend the course to someone else, because they think that this course would help students to be ready for college and get used to the educational environment in the college. We did not expect this result. We believe this discrepancy means that they know some students do benefit from the course and need a refresher in time management, budget management, and learning skills. In our experience, we have seen students need help with navigating online resources, which the course covers.

Learning fundamentals that were found beneficial Time Management Budget Management Learning Skills

Number of students 4 11 5

The above table indicates the result of question 7, where students were asked about which learning fundamentals they found beneficial while taking the course. We found out that more than 50% of the student think that Budget Management was more beneficial than Time Management and Learning Skills. When asked about why they think budget management was more beneficial, they suggested that since majority of the students start working at the age of 18-20, they could manage their money in effective ways and use them efficiently by using some Budget Management tips that they learned while taking the course. As for Time Management and Learning Skills, our group feels students think they already know what to do with time and studying, but we do acknowledge some students do not do what they know to do.

Rating the course from scale of 1-5 1

(Not beneficial) 2

(Less beneficial) 3

(moderately beneficial ) 4

(Beneficial) 5

(Very beneficial)

Number of Students 2 7 4 6 1

The above table indicates the result of question 6. The students were asked to rate the course from scale of 1-5 on basis of their experience from the class (1 being not beneficial and 5 being very beneficial). The results indicate that 45% rated the course less or not beneficial, and, 35% rated the course beneficial or very beneficial. It seems more students do no find the course beneficial. We also asked the students what was the worst part of EDUC 1300 course. Some students felt this course completely wasted their time and money because they already knew everything that was taught. Some of the students said that the class had too many reading and writing assignments, while some students said that the book was barely used for class purpose. But, at the end, almost all the students agreed that they got to learn at least one lesson in the course that benefitted them in some way.

After completing the result analysis, we found that even though most students didn’t like this course, they would still recommend this course to someone else, especially to those who want to get well versed with the college-level education. All they want is that this course should be made optional by the college rather than keeping it mandatory for all. Also, some students told that they would still take the EDUC 1300 course, even if it was optional, since they found it interesting because of activities. The results of the survey are quite interesting because even though many students didn’t like this course, almost all of them learned at least one thing from the course that proved useful for them.

Leadership and Management Final Paper

Fitchburg State University

Department of NursingLeadership and Management Final Paper

Part I due Week XII by midnight on day of classGuidelines/Grading Rubric

Provide a one to two paragraph introduction which identifies the problem, and how it impacts nursing, nursing care, patient outcomes or your role as a nursing student. Include some background information about the topic: Is this a new problem/concern? Is it an ongoing QI project? Is it a concern you identified? Was identified by your preceptor? This will inform the reader of the problem, and then you will provide more background information to “set the stage” for the problem.

Briefly (one paragraph) and anonymously describe the practicum agency. Include whether it is an acute care setting, long term care, community hospital, magnet hospital or teaching hospital. Provide a description of the care area (e.g. PACU), number of beds (e.g. 10), staff composition (e.g. one nurse manager, one nurse educator, 10 RNs, 3 LPNs, 10 UAPs etc.), staff distribution by shifts (e.g. shift lengths and number of nurses per shift), and when possible indicate the staff’s educational level.

Describe your role in the practicum setting. Do not provide a list of the technical skills you perform, rather, identify how you function in this nursing student role. Perhaps identify how you and you nurse receive report, identify which patients you care for, and how you go about planning and implementing this care. Since there are diverse practicum settings, this will be a good opportunity to reflect upon your accomplishments in this expanded student nurse role.

Briefly analyze and describe the power structure (formal & informal) and leadership and/or management style(s) within your placement agency. Review the chapters in your leadership textbook, and use this book as a reference to support your analysis. The textbook will be listed on the reference list, as well as in text citations.Writing Guidelines:Begin this section of the paper with a title page (APA style). This section of the paper should be 2-3 pages in length, not counting title page and Reference page.

Each section (numbers 1-4) is worth 5 points and is graded on completeness. This is a total of 20 points.

Grammar, sentence structure, and writing style are graded within APA writing style and are worth 10 points.

This Assignment: Part I is worth 30 points (of a 100 point final exam).

Late submissions lose 5 point per day (of the maximum 30 points).

Institution (2)

Ford

Student’s Name

Institution

Ford

Question 1

Fords are detailed in its assessment of the diverse consumer market. It achieves this objective by creating diverse markets in all its customer groups through the use of segments. The company carefully studies the trends in all consumer groups ranging from the young the old and developing products which suit their needs.

Ford’s approach to understanding the roles that affect the buying decisions involves an in-depth study of the trends on political issues, technological issues, or economic changes that affect the buyer’s decision. Ford then uses this information to plan for those changes through developing innovations.

Question 2

The psychological influence behind the creation of the Ford pass is intended to have two varied impact for the customers and no customers. For the customers, Ford intends to show that It is committed to offering convenient services for its loyal customers. To the non-customers, Ford is using it as a marketing tool, which indicates that Ford is accommodating, and one doesn’t need to be a member’s toe enjoy its benefits. The introduction of the Ford pass psychologically triggers the consumer to develop trust on the products offered by Ford as well as loyal due to their innovativeness, and concern for the preferences of the consumer.

Question 3

Sheryl Connelly’s research is likely to prove influential at the third stage of the consumer by the decision process. The stage involves the evaluation of alternatives. At this stage, a consumer seeking to purchase an automobile will be weighing up their options. Knowing that Ford does research on consumer trends and also makes an effort to design their products to suit the consumers may help to sway the decision of the buyer towards purchasing Ford.

To analyze the functional value chain of Expedia, Inc.,

Functional AnalysisTo analyze the functional value chain of Expedia, Inc., the major functions include R&D, Marketing, Service, and Information Technology and Operation. The functional analysis uses four criteria to evaluate the performance of each function. The measures of criteria are efficiency, quality, innovation and customer response. The following table is the result of the functional analysis with a rating scale of High, Medium, and Low.

Table: Functional Analysis

R&D Marketing IT & Operation Service

Efficiency High High High High

Quality High High High High

Innovation Med. Med High Med

Customer Response N/A High N/A High

R&D

Expedia, Inc. is an online traveling company that provides traveling information and reservation tools to its customers. Therefore, the first priority of R&D function within Expedia, Inc. is seeking the variety of traveling products and services and obtaining a wide range of travel brands.

Overall, the performances of R&D within Expedia, Inc. are high because Expedia, Inc. strives to obtain maximum customers, partners and suppliers through frame wide-ranging brands collection. In order to be the leading brand in this industry, Expedia, Inc. believes relying on widespread brands collection would get maximum value and market shares. Therefore, Expedia, Inc. mentions that “Expedia, Inc. believes its flagship Expedia brand appeals to the broadest range of travelers, with its extensive product offering ranging from single item bookings of discounted product to complex bundling of higher-end travel packages” (Expedia, Inc., Annual Report, 2007, pg. 5).

In order to enhance its suppliers, Expedia, Inc. uses the extent brands collection and international points of sales. This can help Expedia, Inc. offer a variety of products and services. According to the annual report of Expedia, Inc., Expedia will keep investing in R&D to maintain the best brand portfolio and create maximum value to its suppliers, partners and customers (Expedia, Inc., Annual Report, 2007, pg. 5).

Marketing

The marketing strategy of Expedia, Inc. is to construct an effective, profitable channel by raising awareness of the consumers who are sensitive to price and to enhance the benefit of its subsidiary companies and itself. Furthermore, the media strategy of Expedia, Inc. includes TV commercials, print media, direct-mail, and Internet such as portal website, Expedia.com, and other co-operative enterprises. By using these types of media, Expedia, Inc. has a straight channel to communicate with its target market.

Furthermore, Expedia, Inc. has cooperated with other hotels, transportations, and travel agencies. The company and the co-operative enterprises posted their commercials on each other’s company website while also setting the commission for each website which has online booking from each strategy alliance partners. In addition, Expedia, Inc.’s “affiliate partners can make travel products and services available through an Expedia-branded website, a co-branded website, or their own private label website. Expedia, Inc. also provides its affiliates with technology and access to a wide range of products and services” (Expedia, Inc., Annual Report, 2007, pg. 8). In conclusion, Expedia, Inc. uses its variety of marketing channels and the affiliate partners to maximize the value of its various brands to obtain more consumers. In general, the performance of the marketing is high.

Information Technology & Operations

Expedia, Inc. constantly continues to aggressively innovate its Information Technology and Operating system. For instance, Expedia, Inc. introduced “TravelAds sponsored search product for hotel advertisers, Hotwire’s Airfare Savings Hub and Hotels.com’s slider tools to improve search results and the TripAdvisor Media Network to offer travel applications for download on Facebook.com” (Expedia, Inc., Annual Report, 2007, pg. 5).

In general, Expedia, Inc. keeps innovating to its suppliers, advertisers and customers by providing a service-oriented technology platform on its websites across its broadest brands collection. Expedia, Inc. believes this will make its IT innovation more flexible and faster. And Expedia, Inc. believes this changeover will help it to improve its “site merchandising, browse and search functionality” and also improve “search engine indexing” which will add noteworthy personalization features (Expedia, Inc., Annual Report, 2007, pg. 5).

For its suppliers, Expedia, Inc. develops “proprietary technology” which will make more efficient communication between its websites and hotel central reservation systems. This process will also help the hotels manage its reservations easier through Expedia, Inc.’s websites. This “direct connect technology” can help hotels upload the information of their products and services from hotels’ central reservation systems to Expedia, Inc.’s websites. At the same time, when the customers book the hotels on Expedia, Inc’s websites, the system will automatically confirm hotel reservations. Before the “direct connect system” are introduced, all the process are made manually via proprietary extranet (Expedia, Inc., Annual Report, 2007, pg. 5). Expedia, Inc. also makes efforts in data handling. In order to improve data handling, Expedia, Inc. built the “enterprise data warehouse” that will increase segmentation and merchandising on its’ websites and also improve its e-mail communications with its travelers (Expedia, Inc., Annual Report, 2007, pg. 5).

In order to make its operation and service more flexible, Expedia, Inc. provides 24-hour-a-day, seven-days-a-week service by telephone or via e-mail through a combination of outsourced and in-house call centers. Expedia, Inc. mentions that it “plans to make significant investments in its call center technologies in 2008 and beyond” (Expedia, Inc., Annual Report, 2007, pg 8-9). In the IT& Operation function, the rate of Expedia, Inc.’s performance is high. This is because Expedia, Inc. invests aggressively on its IT and operation functions in order to provide a better service for its consumers, suppliers, and partners.

Service

In the service function, Expedia, Inc. mainly focuses on the partner service because all of its operations will rely heavily on its suppliers and partners and its overall performance in this function area is high. In order to succeed in this industry, Expedia, Inc. heavily depends on its capability to expand or maintain the relationships with its suppliers and GDS partners. Expedia, Inc. also mentions that if Expedia, Inc. could not improve its existing relationship with suppliers or partners and could not change its lack of ability to get new arrangements with its new partners on favorable terms, it will reduce Expedia, Inc.’s quality, amount and breadth of attractively priced travel products and services that it provides to its customers (Expedia, Inc., Annual Report, 2007, pg. 11). In fact, this situation will affect Expedia, Inc.’s financial performance and this is why Expedia, Inc. heavily focuses on the partner service (Expedia, Inc., Annual Report, 2007, pg. 11).

Stakeholder Participation in Eco and Smart Cities Construction

Future Cities: Stakeholder Participation in Eco and Smart Cities Construction

Introduction

Cities are built as a result of various interests and desires of stakeholders coming together. Some of the key stakeholders include planners, landowners, investors, the public, governments, transport engineers, and architects, amongst others (Arlati et al., 2021). There are a variety of stakeholders in each place, including government and industry, startups, people, and, of course, architects. Stakeholders are those who have an interest in something. They all have a role in the development of cities. Even while no one stakeholder is more vital than the others, success is impossible without all of them. Planned development in the cities and urban settings is in collaboration with all stakeholders (Wesley & Ainsworth, 2018). Stakeholder engagement is the most difficult aspect of enhancing urban planning while simultaneously incorporating individual interests. The development of a city involves a large number of individuals. So, in the development endeavors, it is important to remain open, transparent, and participative. Local working groups (comprised of all relevant stakeholders) are recommended as part of the urban design planning based on a method of finding ideas that benefit the community while also fitting with the city’s declared strategic aims (utilities, administrative departments, enterprises, civil society representatives, and scientific institutions) (Laspidou, 2014). The said development partnership in the running of cities not only promises to be inclusive but also to create a product (future city) that serves the interests of every stakeholder. The aim of this paper is to show that cities are built by an amalgamation of stakeholders including landowners, investors, government institutions, planners, architects, the public, and any other interest party. No one party has monopoly over the other in terms of what to create in city planning and design and each stakeholder has a role to play in the moderation of processes that include the physical, economic, ecological, and social city development.

Stakeholders in the Future of Cities

Cities are experiencing fast population growth, resulting in increased demands and financial obligations. In order to retain their competitiveness and achieve sustainable growth, cities must discover methods to increase their efficiency and save money while maintaining a high quality of living for their residents. By 2050, Bjørgen, Fossheim, and Macharis (2021) report that cities will be home to 70% of the world’s population, increasing the pressure on management to become more intelligent, while stakeholders acquire significance and interest as research topics, beginning to threaten the territories’ domination of the global economy. As a result, Martinez and Olander (2015) point to the need to include stakeholders who can provide valuable feedback (as well as an indication of how a subsequent planning application will be received). The term stakeholder refers to anyone who has a vested interest in the development or conclusion of the project (Guo & Kapucu, 2019). Persons participating in the design of a city in any capacity, including designers and investors, as well as subcontractors, as well as persons employed in any position by local governments and the legal system, are all considered possible stakeholders in a typical city design process. Nonetheless, their participation requires careful organization and a clearly defined mandate, as they may lack prior design experience and their actions may be beyond the control of internal and direct stakeholders including investors and land owners.

Government and the Public Sector

In response to the steps taken by the private sector toward sustainable businesses, cities are increasingly shifting their focus toward digital technology innovation. Curwell et al. (2005) mention that future cities will include a more interactive and responsive municipal government, safer public spaces, and addressing the needs of people of all ages. Cities are also becoming more environmentally friendly. In the field of city planning, the government and the public sector play an essential role. Thanks to new legislation and widespread popular backing, governments will be able to guide the development of futuristic city planning. Also included are initiatives to encourage positive stakeholder behavior and awareness, to encourage citizen-driven experimentation from the ground up, and to include an innovative lifestyle into all services provided to people.

Investors and Financial Partners

Investors include those who have financial investments and institutions that lend money to individuals in order to accomplish development projects in urban areas, among other things. They provide assistance to businesses and governments through the sponsorship and investment in initiatives. They safeguard the assets of both small and big depositors by investing in only the most profitable enterprises. The vast majority of investors feel that urban design has a key influence in increasing the value of real estate sales and rentals. In the decision-making process of city residents, environmental quality is regarded as a critical concern, among other criteria like as access, parking, security, service (particularly in the IT sector), and internal environmental management (Bridgman, 2004). When it comes to creating stronger returns and future growth possibilities from their investment, the investors understand that addressing the initial development’s lack of participation in urban planning is critical.

Research and Innovation sector

The research and innovation sector is a major stakeholder in city design and a notable contributor to future cities. University-based research is essential for the development of creative ideas that may result in a more sustainable and healthier urban environment in the long run. Due to the increasing urbanization, globalization, and climate change, scientists have been compelled to develop and test novel processes, as well as intelligent city solutions based on prototypes and models that bridge the technological as well as socioeconomic gap. Making city designers more aware and understanding of the future system, as well as the breadth of technology and solutions available, is crucial to ensuring the success of the transition (Anttiroiko, Valkama, & Bailey, 2014). In addition to assisting cities in their efforts to achieve overall sustainability, Laspidou (2014) notes that academic research and the knowledge it generates will help to increase the city systems’ short- and long-term flexibility. At present, Anthopoulos and Vakali (2012) point to the way consumer behavior is shifting in a positive direction as a result of the introduction of novel legal frameworks, business models, services, and technological solutions. Incorporating current research into real-world solutions allows for a greater grasp of the problem’s complexity while also proving practicability and economic feasibility for the solution. Demonstration projects carried out at clusters and research institutes produce useful knowledge on market applications and commercial arrangements that may be exploited in future city designs.

Constructors, Architects, Planners, and Designers

Regardless of their size, planning committees, real estate developers, competence centers, technology suppliers, and system integrators all play an important role in the transition process toward a future city. Smart meters, data displays, and energy management services for multi-fluid systems assist in disseminating future city projects in test users’ homes, new or existing residential dwellings, public buildings, and communal housing, among other places (Pereira et al., 2018). In order to continue progress and innovation in urban areas, a number of revolutions in design, engineering, and construction have taken place in the recent decade, bringing together different sector players with variant contributions matching up to a singular aim of having better city designs that are inclusive and sustainable. All of these developments may be ascribed to the present industrial and technological revolution, which is shifting the focus away from traditional construction systems and toward industrialized building systems that will eventually lead to future cities.

The Civil Society and Activists

While the involvement of the civil society and activists may not be on a technical capacity in city design, it must be provided careful consideration. Civil societies have the interests of the people and may shift narratives, bring a population for or against certain design projects. For example, civil societies have influenced the inclusion of transgender individuals in the design of urban toilets. Such subtle shows of power point to the importance of civil societies as stakeholders in dictating urban designs and the future of cities (Abusaada & Elshater, 2021). The needs and concerns of the community’s members serve as the starting point for its actions. The themes that are discussed and disputed are determined by the interests of the general population. Individuals are helped and mobilized throughout the process in order to bring their difficulties to the public’s attention and strive for a resolution.

Citizen participation is crucial to urban rejuvenation and should be completely integrated into smart government systems to achieve maximum results. A technique for reestablishing public trust in city design officials is to involve citizens in the decision-making process about the city’s future. Citizens are making the move from being end consumers to being prosumers, providing data and information, and taking on new duties in the smart and sustainable city of the future. Social innovators in future urban design attempt to inspire new modes of civic involvement (Lim, Kim, & Maglio, 2018), with an emphasis on inclusion and social protection (Abusaada & Elshater, 2021), that are capable of meeting social needs effectively and with up-to-date capabilities, and an emphasis on inclusion and social protection (Laspidou, 2014). All of these factors contribute to the development of emerging urban economies to include social entrepreneurs driven by certain community demands, community-based initiatives, and innovative corporate collaboration models.

Climate Change and Eco Cities: Copenhagen

A worldwide phenomenon, climate change has a profound impact on the way people live in urban areas, particularly in the developed nations such as Denmark. Because of this, sea levels are rising and more extreme weather events have been witnessed. Other effects include faster spread of tropical illnesses. All of these impacts have a substantial financial impact on cities, infrastructure, housing projects, jobs, and the general public. City dwellers are a substantial source of greenhouse gas emissions, and as a result, they make a considerable contribution to the global warming problem. The bulk of the CO2 emissions in the world today are attributed to cities, according to (Joss, 2011), with transportation and buildings accounting for the vast majority of these emissions.

Stakeholder involvement is very important in changing the way a city design regards the issues of climate change and the adoption of eco cities. In Copenhagen, the city’s climate plan has a path laid out for the city focusing on attaining carbon neutrality in the next 3 years (HagHigHatafSHar et al., 2014). The city focuses on every little sector that makes up the city’s overall carbon footprint. The City has a plan to attain significant reduction in emissions to have eco cities that are conscious of the climate change issue.

As Copenhagen has shown through its comprehensive city of the future plan, successful outcomes can only be achieved by a comprehensive global, regional, national, and local strategy and effort. The involvement of all stakeholders is very important in this process. There must be total cooperation from all direct and indirect stakeholders including planners, designers, land owners, governments, local authorities, legislation, investors, and any other interested group. City authorities must also play an important role in the fight against climate change by ensuring that all other players are involved. Copenhagen is already taking steps to minimize industrial emissions, including the use of renewable energy sources (Hallegatte et al., 2011), the improvement of production processes (Carter, Clegg, & Wåhlin, 2011), and the imposition of restrictions or the provision of financial incentives to reduce overall carbon footprints. In the next five decades, emissions reductions in Copenhagen will aid in the reduction of pollution from industry and transportation (Smiley, 2017), resulting in improved air quality and the health of city people as a result.

Smart Cities and Technology: Singapore

As the world’s population continues to grow, it becomes increasingly critical to have a framework in place for adopting and supporting sustainable development initiatives. The majority of it is made up of information and communication technology. The ICT design includes a digital city, which is a network of networked devices that connect via wireless technologies and the cloud (Yaqoob et al., 2017). Municipalities, organizations, and individuals may all benefit from analyzing real-time data and installing cloud-based IoT applications (Joo, 2021). Citizens can engage with smart city ecosystems through mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets, as well as through connected autos and homes. By integrating digital technology with a city’s physical infrastructure and services, it may be possible to save money while boosting its sustainability.

Historically, city management and authorities saw smart technology solely as a means of increasing operational efficiency. As seen in Singapore, technology is increasingly being integrated into daily life and influencing the design and management of entire cities. Millions of individuals may now use their cellphones to obtain real-time information about transportation, traffic, health services, safety alerts, and local news (Johnston, 2019). Cities are increasingly leveraging data and digital technology to deliver outcomes that are more relevant and meaningful to their residents, effectively advancing them past the experimental stage. Smart cities like Singapore are using data and digital technology to improve the lives of their citizens and the city as a whole (von Richthofen, Tomarchio, & Costa, 2019). More comprehensive, real-time data gives the capability to monitor events live, discover demand trends, and respond with faster, more cost-effective solutions.

By implementing smart city technologies, Singapore is able to enhance its infrastructure, public services, transportation, and other fundamentals. For example, connected traffic signals receive data from sensors and automobiles and adjust the cadence and timing of lights in real time to accommodate the current flow of traffic, hence reducing congestion (Woods, 2020). In the next 50 years, Singapore will have parking meters and electric vehicle charging stations that will enable communication with connected autos, guiding drivers to the next available space and other benefits. Rather than relying on a fixed collection schedule, smart trash cans communicate with waste management companies to arrange pick-ups as needed (Joo, 2021). A smartphone doubles as a mobile driver’s license and identification card, complete with digital credentials, providing an easy way for citizens to access city and local government services.

Conclusion

From the above analysis of the involvement of different players in Singapore and Copenhagen to create smart cities using technology and considering climate change needs through eco cities, the role of every stakeholder in influencing the design and construction of a city cannot be ignored. The discussion establishes that persons participating in the design of a city in any capacity, including designers and investors, as well as subcontractors, as well as persons employed in any position by local governments and the legal system, are all considered possible stakeholders in a typical city design process. Therefore, the report can confidently summarize that cities of the future will be built as a result of various interests and desires of stakeholders coming together. While some of the key stakeholders (including planners, landowners, investors, the public, governments, transport engineers, and architects) have more technical and physical involvement, this done not cancel out the crucial role of other stakeholders (such as civil societies, city legislation, activists, and other lesser involved parties) who also have a say in influencing how cities are built. The examples from Singapore and Copenhagen indicate that without the active and positive involvement of every stakeholder, city construction and design would be in chaos. Local working groups (comprised of all relevant stakeholders) are recommended as part of the urban design planning based on a method of finding ideas that benefit the community while also fitting with the city’s declared strategic aims (utilities, administrative departments, enterprises, civil society representatives, and scientific institutions). Overall, no stakeholder possesses monopoly over the other in terms of what to create in city design and each stakeholder has a role to play in the moderation of processes that include the physical, economic, ecological, and social city development.

References

Abusaada, H., & Elshater, A. (2021). Competitiveness, distinctiveness and singularity in urban design: A systematic review and framework for smart cities. Sustainable Cities and Society, 102782.

Anthopoulos, L. G., & Vakali, A. (2012, May). Urban planning and smart cities: Interrelations and reciprocities. In The Future Internet Assembly (pp. 178-189). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.

Anttiroiko, A. V., Valkama, P., & Bailey, S. J. (2014). Smart cities in the new service economy: building platforms for smart services. AI & society, 29(3), 323-334.

Arlati, A., Rödl, A., Kanjaria-Christian, S., & Knieling, J. (2021). Stakeholder Participation in the Planning and Design of Nature-Based Solutions. Insights from CLEVER Cities Project in Hamburg. Sustainability, 13(5), 2572.

Bjørgen, A., Fossheim, K., & Macharis, C. (2021). How to build stakeholder participation in collaborative urban freight planning. Cities, 112, 103149.

Bridgman, R. (2004). Criteria for best practices in building child-friendly cities: Involving young people in urban planning and design. Canadian Journal of Urban Research, 337-346.

Carter, C., Clegg, S., & Wåhlin, N. (2011). When science meets strategic realpolitik: The case of the Copenhagen UN climate change summit. Critical Perspectives on Accounting, 22(7), 682-697.

Curwell, S., Deakin, M., Cooper, I., Paskaleva-Shapira, K., Ravetz, J., & Babicki, D. (2005). Citizens’ expectations of information cities: implications for urban planning and design. Building Research & Information, 33(1), 55-66.

Guo, X., & Kapucu, N. (2019). Examining stakeholder participation in social stability risk assessment for mega projects using network analysis. International Journal of Disaster Risk Management, 1(1), 1-31.

HagHigHatafSHar, S., la Cour Jansen, J., Aspegren, H., Lidström, V., Mattsson, A., & Jönsson, K. (2014). Storm-water management in Malmö and Copenhagen with regard to climate change scenarios. J. Water Manag. Res, 70, 159-168.

Hallegatte, S., Ranger, N., Mestre, O., Dumas, P., Corfee-Morlot, J., Herweijer, C., & Wood, R. M. (2011). Assessing climate change impacts, sea level rise and storm surge risk in port cities: a case study on Copenhagen. Climatic change, 104(1), 113-137.

Johnston, K. (2019). A comparison of two smart cities: Singapore and Atlanta. JCULP, 3, 191.

Joo, Y. M. (2021). Developmentalist smart cities? the cases of Singapore and Seoul. International Journal of Urban Sciences, 1-19.

Joss, S. (2011). Eco-cities: The mainstreaming of urban sustainability–key characteristics and driving factors. International Journal of Sustainable Development and Planning, 6(3), 268-285.

Laspidou, C. (2014). ICT and stakeholder participation for improved urban water management in the cities of the future. Water Utility Journal, 8(1), 79-85.

Lim, C., Kim, K. J., & Maglio, P. P. (2018). Smart cities with big data: Reference models, challenges, and considerations. Cities, 82, 86-99.

Martinez, C., & Olander, S. (2015). Stakeholder participation for sustainable property development. Procedia Economics and Finance, 21, 57-63.

Pereira, G. V., Parycek, P., Falco, E., & Kleinhans, R. (2018). Smart governance in the context of smart cities: A literature review. Information Polity, 23(2), 143-162.

Smiley, K. T. (2017). Climate change denial, political beliefs, and cities: Evidence from Copenhagen and Houston. Environmental Sociology, 3(1), 76-86.

von Richthofen, A., Tomarchio, L., & Costa, A. (2019). Identifying communities within the smart-cultural city of Singapore: a network analysis approach. Smart Cities, 2(1), 66-81.

Wesley, J. M., & Ainsworth, E. L. (2018). Creating communities of choice: Stakeholder participation in community planning. Societies, 8(3), 73.

Woods, O. (2020). Subverting the logics of “smartness” in Singapore: Smart eldercare and parallel regimes of sustainability. Sustainable Cities and Society, 53, 101940.

Yaqoob, I., Hashem, I. A. T., Mehmood, Y., Gani, A., Mokhtar, S., & Guizani, S. (2017). Enabling communication technologies for smart cities. IEEE Communications Magazine, 55(1), 112-120.

new gastrulation in the mouse

Gastrulation in the mouse

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Embryonic development refers to the process of growth and development of embryo. Stage of embryonic development is a phase within the period of embryonic development that is marked by distinct growth changes in the embryo. Gastrulation is a stage in the development of embryos in the mouse. The reason for gastrulation is to form a body plan that serves in the succeeding embryo morphogenesis. In the Mus musculus (house mouse), gastrulation is like a continually changing process, three-dimensional puzzle that has specific characteristics when comparing it to non-mammals and other mammalian embryos.

In mouse, gastrulation starts after a blastula implants into the uterine walls of the mother, and is immediately followed by development of different organ systems also knows as organogenesis. Organogenesis is characterized by the formation of vital organs such as brain and spinal cord, coelom, muscle tissues, notochord and neural tube (Ibim, 2010). The coordinated cell movements result in a spatially organized embryo, and puts together the framework on which other features are to develop from into building the body. Gastrula is the term used in defining the process in which embryo undergoes gastrulation.

In mouse a two-day gap exist between implantation and starting of gastrulation; there is an implantation of blastocyst in the uterine wall and this occurs after two and half days after coitum (DPC), and gastrulation commences six and half DPC. In the two-day span, cells undergo transformation to develop a fertilized egg called zygote. In the cleavage process, cells are united together by adhesive proteins, which must be deactivated to permit movements of specific cells. The relaxed cellular bonds allow the inner cell mass to enlarge and reorganize into specific layers. One the layers, the epiblast, is layer of cells, which are the precursors of all embryonic cells. As epiblast continues to grow, the shape become cup like, with the rim situated on dorsal side of embryo.

The cleavage or cell division stage starts approximately 18-36 hours after fertilization. The zygote formed after fertilization divides into multiple cells through a process known as binary fission (Campbell & Reece, 2005). The resultant cells after fission carry equal number of chromosomes and genes. After the 8-cell stage, the cells bind to form a compact sphere. Further divisions within the sphere lead to the formation of a 32-cell mass known as morula. Each of the cells within the molula is known as blastomere. This is followed by a process known as cavitation in which the outer cells secret fluid containing proteins into the sphere, facilitating rapid division of the cells (Forgacs & Newman, 2005). Despite the increase in the number of cells in this phase, the volume of the zygote remains the same. The zygote lands into the uterus during the 6th or the 7th day, after which developmental changes lead to the formation of three membranes: placenta, chorion and amnion (Forgacs & Newman, 2005). Further development of the morula leads to formation of a ball containing about 2000 cells known as blastocyst. Also, a fluid-filled cavity called blastocoele is also formed within the embryo. The developmental changes end with the formation of a structure known as blastula. The blastula is surrounded by a layer of single sells called trophoblast. However, it contains a thick inner layer of cells at one end of the inner cavity, from which the embryo will develop (Campbell & Reece, 2005).

Differentiation is the third phase in which specialized structures that perform more functions start to form. About 21 days after the implantation of the embryo onto the uterus, the endoderm, mesoderm and ectoderm grow further and differentiate to form neutral tube and notocord, among other vital organs of the body. The process of formation of body organs from the germ layers is called neurulation (Campbell & Reece, 2005). Notocord develops from mesoderm and undergoes through a series of developments to form the vertebral column. However, notochord in human beings disappears before birth. The development of neural groove in this stage leads to the formation of brain, and spinal cord (Campbell & Reece, 2005). The mesoderm also undergoes through a series of developments leading to the formation of vertebrae, muscles, and connective tissues. In addition, the mesoderm grows to form gonads, adrenal glands, and kidneys. Furthermore, coelom is formed by the end of differentiation phase.

Embryonic Period

Prenatal development is the process that occurs during pregnancy whereby an embryo gestates from fertilization to birth. Fertilization occurs when a sperm penetrates fully into the egg. The end product is called a zygote (Sagan 1997 p.164). There are various stages of development that a zygote undergoes before birth namely; the germinal, embryonic and fetal stage. The embryonic period is that stage at fertilization that is, at the second week of gestation and continues up to the tenth week of gestation. It starts after the germinal stage when the blastocyst attaches itself to the uterine wall a process called implantation.

The stage is marked by the zygote’s attachment to the uterine wall and the first occurrence of ossification, that is, the formation of solid bone. Also, the placenta and the umbilical cord fundamental in supporting the embryo develop.

It is worth noting that at this particular stage, there is evidence of lots of growth of the embryo and cell differentiation. Cells differentiate into various body systems including blood cells, kidney cells and nerve cells. Differentiation of organ systems takes place in three layers (Miller 1967).

a). Ectoderm -This is when the nerve system and the sensory cells develop. At this point, the hair, nails and the outer layer of the skin and the skin glands develop.

b). Mesoderm -This layers is characteristic of the muscles, skeleton, the excretory and the circulatory system develop. The inner skin layers also develop.

c). Endoderm -The gastrointestinal tract, glands, the lungs, pancreas and liver develop.

During the fourth week of gestation, the embryo is approximately the size of the human thumbnail. It is interesting to note that even at this small size, there is a pulse by a small vessel which eventually becomes the heart, at 200 heartbeats a minute.

At the eighth week, nearly at the end of this period, the head is as large as the body of the embryo. It is worth noting that at this time, some features including the face, fingers, toes, eyes and the external genitalia are recognizable (Harris & Butterworth 2002).

Growth is the last phase in embryo development. During this phase, the body goes through a period of growth characterized by formation of new cells, extra cellular matrix, and new organs (Campbell & Reece, 2005). The growth phase starts between the eighth and ninth months after conception and continues until birth. Fetal developments in the growth phase are described in the next section.

Gastrulation commences with the formation on primitive node on epiblast’s posterior side. Primitive node is a collection of cells that secretes cellular signals in forms of proteins for instance fibroblast growth factor (FGF). The signals assist the cells to move within embryo during gastrulation. When node appearances it indicates the existence of tail and head distinction or posterior and anterior polarity. From the node, a structure termed as primitive streaks develops. This is a groove that comes from embryonic ventral side. As primitive streak increases in size, epiblast cells situated in the inner sides of cup enters into streak. As cells moves into primitive streak, it relates with cellular signals, which regulates the tissue type the cells can form. The cells that go through streak become mesendoderm, which are endoderm and mesoderm precursors. After they leave the primitive streak, these cells scatter and form a wave of mesendoderm that protrudes to cover the exterior of embryo.

In the mouse, mesendoderm covers the ectoderm, which later form the nervous system and epidermis. The mesendoderm splits into mesoderm; which becomes the muscles, skeleton, and different internal organs. On the other hand, endoderm separates to become gastrointestinal and respiratory systems. The mesoderm forms in the anterior portion of embryo, and endoderm on the posterior side where primitive streak initiated. The two, mesoderm and endoderm fully separate from each other around sixteen DPC.

As various researchers normally employ gastrulation in mouse as model for gastrulation in other mammals, the ordering of the germ cells is precisely opposite as in majority of the mammals for instance in human beings. In human beings, the development of foetus from conception to birth can be divided into three stages: first trimester, second trimester and third trimester. Each of the stages consists of three months. The process of transformation of embryo to foetus is a gradual process that takes place within the first trimester. Transition starts during the cleavage phase, characterized by rapid division of cells within the embryo. This is followed by the formation of germ layers (endoderm, mesoderm and ectoderm), chorion and amnion within three to six weeks after conception. Organogenesis follows in the next six to eight weeks (differentiation phase) characterized by the formation of vital organs such as brain and spinal cord, coelom, muscle tissues, notochord and neural tube (Ibim, 2010). In humans, the gastrula arranges in flat shape, known as planar arrangement, whereby the ectoderm situated on the dorsal side de of endoderm and mesoderm. However, the transition from embryo to foetus continues after the differentiation phase. Other changes occur from the ninth week, which make the embryo to look more like a human being (Ibim, 2010). The changes include the formation of head, ears, nose, heart, hands and legs. Also, the placenta is fully formed by the end of the ninth week. By the end of the first trimester, the embryo is fully transitioned into foetus. The chorion is fully established, the embryo is in the amniotic sac and the sex of the foetus can be determined (Ibim, 2010).

The second trimester is characterized by more growth and refinement activities and less developmental activities. The placenta plays the biggest role in maintaining homeostasis through secretion of progesterone and transfer of nutrients and wastes. The foetus is approximately 6cm by the beginning of the first trimester. At 20 weeks, the foetus has grown to approximately half a kilogram. At this time, heartbeat can be heard and the legs, head, face, and hands are prominent (Ibim, 2010).

Further growth and development continues during the third trimester. A series of changes and developments take place in the circulatory and respiratory systems which facilitate air-breathing after birth. Additional changes and developments occur, which enable the foetus to maintain constant body temperature. Changes also occur such as increase in size and weight, reduction in the size of head, thickening of the muscle and hardening of bones and skin (Ibim, 2010).

Maturation processes within developmental stages in the foetus

After birth, the foetus is required to adapt to the environmental changes by establishing and maintaining physiological homeostasis, without the assistance of the placenta. Therefore, the survival of the foetus after birth is dependent upon maturation of structures and organs that interface with the new environment. Examples of essential organs and structures are lungs, immune system, gut, liver, pancreases and kidney (Strauss & ‎Barbieri, 2013). Various studies have shown that maturation processes during foetal development are induced by glucocorticoids (Strauss & ‎Barbieri, 2013). Critical maturation processes that occur during foetal development include deposition of glycogen in the liver; activity of enzyme systems in the foetal brain, thyroid gland, pancreases, retina, and gut; and production of surfactant by foetal lungs. Maturation of the foetal lungs is particularly important since inability to breathe due pulmonary immaturity has been found to be a leading cause of mortality among preterm infants as well as neonatal morbidity (Norris & Lopez, 2010). However, the key functions of glucocorticoids in the process of maturation are not yet clear. As Norris and Lopez (2010) highlight, some studies have shown that glucocorticoids do not initiate maturation of cells; they simply accelerate the process of maturation.

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Gilbert, Scott F. Developmental Biology, 9th edition. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer, 2010.

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Ibim, S. (2010). Biology: Threads of Life. New York (NY): Xlibris Corporation

Johnson, L. R. (2003). Essential Medical Physiology. New York (NY): Academic Press.

Miller B.F. (1967). The Complex Medical Guide. New York: Simon and Schuster.

Harris M. & Butterworth G.(2002). Developmental Psychology: A Student Handbook. New York: Taylor and Francis Inc.