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safety policies in aviation Industry in USA

Introduction

Safety concerns are the most relevant in all aviation establishments. The fact that a considerable number of human lives are always at stake makes it worth all the attention. The U.S government, through Federal Aviation Agency(FAA), extends their monitoring and control of the aviation industry. The organization’s mandate is to develop and oversee implementation of safety policies. Safety is not only a professional and noble responsibility,but also a law.

Pilots’ Shortcomings

Quite a number of aviation accidents occur due to human errors. Failure to maintain professionalism is a major undoing for pilots. Professionalism in aviation requires pilots to oversee flight endeavors in the best way possible. Flight details, such as airspeed and control functions, should remain under close watch. It is the pilot’s responsibility to acknowledge that human lives depend on their actions. Pilots should have a full time awareness regarding air and flight conditions. Pilots shortcomings are diverse and range from incomprehensibility, invalidity, plain biases and faulty suppositions and analyses. Incomprehensibility referes to general failure of pilots to understand emergence of risky issues. Plain biases implies that pilots fail to prioritize the sensitive safety issues and instead focus on others not as urgent.

Visual Related Conditions

The aviation industry is highly dependent on weather conditions. Bad weather conditions affect visibility which is a key factor in air transportation. The aviation industry is well aware of the challenges posed by bad weather conditions, but these conditions are uncontrollable. Ways to deal with visibility issues such as flight route diversification and aviation area forecast are in place. There are low visibility procedures set to allow flight takeoffs and landings under unfavorable conditions. Safety measures intend to place aviation activities beyond interruption from weather conditions.

Mechanical Problems

It is practically inevitable to have mechanical troubles in the aviation industry. Mechanical hitches usually jeopardize security measures and safety control mechanisms. Aviation monitoring agencies such as the FAA recommend maximum attention to flight mechanical issues. Safety oriented and experienced aircraft maintenance engineers help in resolving mechanical problems. These professionals should have certified operating licenses from aviation regulatory bodies. Air crafts should also have automated systems to detect mechanical problems.

Safety Training

Total maintenance of safety measures requires continuous education, orientation and awareness. These essential aviation qualities equip aviation workers with the knowledge to promote a culture of safety maintenance. Safety training enlightens workers and flight engineers on the techniques to avoid accidents. It keeps them at bay with recent safety tips and practices. Safety training is a basic practice considering that technology changes happen rapidly. Safety training recognizes the need for the aviation industry to keep up with technological changes.

Similarities are based on the geographic settings, the portrayal of racism, and the specifics of the court case

Introduction

Similarities are based on the geographic settings, the portrayal of racism, and the specifics of the court case

Body

Geographical setting

Similarity in Portrayal of racism

Similarity in the specifics of the court cases

Conclusion

What entails moral courage and the summation of Tom Robinson and Scottsboro boys’ case

study designs and Data Collection

Introduction

The study design involved the use of a cross-sectional survey and this provided a simplified design and expedited the collection and analysis of the data (Creswell 2009). Kraus (2005) defines a cross sectional study as one where the researcher identifies a subset of the whole population under study and collects data at a single point in time. This subset must be well representative of the whole population. The cross sectional survey questionnaires interviews were conducted on one day again with an emphasis on time and expedience. The data collection and analysis was quantitive in nature, this approach was favoured as it would eventually produce data that was systematically arranged and that was easy to logically analyse (Creswell, Trout and Barbuto, 2004). The data hence collected was easy to analyse through various methods and mediums and help the researcher come to a deductive conclusion.

Participants and Sampling

The population was a convenience sample drawn from 100 international paramedic students who were given an opportunity to participate and from this n=30 participants completed the survey. A clustering technique was used so as to offer a notification to participate in several meetings as it is impossible to ascertain a sample without a list (Creswell 2009). Since surveys were handed out to only those who were international paramedic students and were available to participate it was a convenience sample (Babbie 1990, in Creswell 2009). Convenience sampling involves picking respondents from among those who are easily available, this helps ease the rigours involved in searching for respondents from a large sample. The major shortcoming of this approach though is that the data collected might not be representative of the whole population (Creswell 2009). There was no stratification, only male participants were invited to participate (Creswell 2009). With 100 surveys and an estimated 10% response sample the calculated margin of error is 4.9% with a confidence rating of 90% (Relevant Insights 2012).

Data Collection

Data collection was done from the self-administered questionnaires (Appendix 1) that were designed using a five point Likert scales, multiple choice and yes/no questions this enables participants to rank responses (Huck 2008). The questions were closed and answers were from a limited population that enabled generalization of findings for comparison (Creswell 2009). I was able to make estimates of attributes from a small group and thereby, make assertions about a larger population (Fowler 1998; Babbie 1990, in Charema 2004). From this it was possible to make generalisations about behavioural characteristics of the population.

The survey was sectionalised first section addressed demographic information, the second discussed experience and the third directly as to stress predictors. The researcher looked at previous studies in the field of job related stress for paramedics and narrowed down the questions from these studies to suit his research question and hypotheses. The researcher was fortunate to have had the input of the course supervisor who has also written extensively on the topic of job stress previously. The quantitative data collected from the questionnaires was time efficient and enabled the researcher to rapidly turn around the data and evaluate the information to publish findings (Creswell 2009).

References

Blau, G, Chapman, S & Gibson, G 2011, ‘Exploring the Importance of Different Items as Reasons for Leaving Emergency Medical Services Between Fully Compensated, Partially Compensated, and Non-Compensated/Volunteer Samples’, Journal of Allied Health, vol. 40, no. 3, pp.e33-e37.

Blumenfield, M, & Byrne, D 1997, ‘Development of Posttraumatic stress disorder in urban Emergency medical Service workers’, Medscape Mental Health e-Journal, vol.2, no.9.

Boudreaux, E, Mandry, C & Brentley, P 1997, ‘Stress, job satisfaction, coping, and psychological distress among emergency medical technicians’, Prehospital and Disaster Medicine, vol.12, vol. 4, pp.242-249.

Bryman, A., and Cramer, D. (2008), Quantitative Data Analysis with SPSS 14, 15, 16, Routledge, London.

student influx. There has been an influx of international students in the Australian universities

Introduction

There has been an influx of international students in the Australian universities (Government of South Australia, 2011). Given that most of these students come from different countries with diverse cultural backgrounds, it becomes inevitable that they have to face a lot of challenges in the course of their studies in this nation. One of the major challenges faced is diet. This means that when they come here, they find a new diet which may be strange to them. However, this leaves them with no choice rather that striving to adapt (Misner B, 2006).

The first thing they should do is to understand the feeding habits in this country. They are obliged to carry out an extensive research to find out the types of foods popular with the Australians. This will enable them to have a deeper understanding of these meals before coming up with the right decision on exactly what to do about it (Simon S, 2003). Making a right decision will be of a great benefit to them since it will give them an opportunity to choose what fits them. Hence, it can be possible for them to continue living a healthy life despite the change (Wojtaszek CA, et al. 2005).

However, before settling on such a decision, these international students should seek the support of dieticians. Since the universities are universal organizations which serve the interest of international communities, it is imperative that they employ full time dieticians (Woods M, et al. 2009). They should be given the responsibility to offer advisory services to the international students on the right type of food to adopt. Their services are necessary because they can be instrumental in guiding these students on the available diets in Australia. Moreover, they can use such opportunities to sensitize them on the foods which can be appropriate for their consumption (McMahon K & Brown JK, 2007).

This paper reports that the most recommended meal for these international students should be aimed at enabling them to continue leading a healthy life as they used to do before. In this consumerism society, people are fond of consuming meals which expose them to lots of health risks (Puckett R, 2004). In this regard, this review suggests that the chosen set of diet should be based on Atkins theory. Meaning, they should be encouraged to consume foods rich in limited contents of carbohydrates. This can be instrumental in protecting them from contracting dangerous diet related ailments such as diabetes and obesity. Moreover, a modification in the diet can be undertaken so that it can address the medical issues that presents with the intake of specific diets. There is need for international students to take artificial foods that have a high proportion of nutrients (Houtzager L, 2009). A proper diet will protect the students from nutritional related diseases.

To conclude this literature review, the students should ensure that they satisfy the recommended dietary intake targets as outlined by the dieticians. Besides, they should learn about all varieties of nutritional foods including their aroma, taste, appearance, food colour, and texture. Briefly, international students in Australia must ensure that they learn about Australian foods and quickly adapt to the diets so that they can continue living a healthy lifestyle. This will enable them to fit into this country and enjoy their studies without any problem.

Research objective and questionThe main objective of the research was to find out how well the foreign students adapt their nutritional needs to the food and the eating habits of the host country. To achieve this, the research aimed at getting an answer to the following questions

How well do foreign students adapt to the food types of the host country and does the food meet their expectations?

What kind of support are these students offered by the administration so as to be able to cope better?

MethodologyStudy design:Qualitative research is a technique of enquiring in-depth understanding of human behaviour in their social environment and the factors leading to such behaviour. This study used the Grounded Theory approach. This theory aims at shaping a certain desire which is discovered in social and psychological processes (Creswell, 2009). Moreover, this method comes with a number of merits such as development of new theories that will be accepted in the research when the research questions cannot be accurately answered. However, it also suffers from the following demerits; in that it requires a lot of labour as well as resources, the scope is also limited due to in-depth approach and it results to the procedural technicalities due to its subjectivity (Babbie, 2011).

This research aimed at studying how international students around Flinders University manage their nutritional needs. As an assistant director in the Ministry of Health and Nutrition, this is a research the researcher carried out as a requirement in his workplace.

Data collectionThe study adopted a one on one interview approach which enabled the researcher to probe deeper on answers that were vague. The researcher constructed an interview guide (Appendix 1) to help him in structuring the interview and collect data (Grbich, 1999). The interview guide was made with the objective of the research in mind so that it could collect data that was as relevant as possible. The questions were all open ended to aid the researcher get a variety of answers.

Pilot interviews were carried out among the peers of the researcher to aid in identifying areas that would present difficulties during the actual interviews and iron them out (Mantri, 2009)

Ethical issuesEthical implications regarding issues on privacy and confidentiality arose in the formulation of the study. Many students felt that the information they give when data is collected may be exposed with their identity and this makes many to decline being recruited as respondents. The respondents were therefore assured of the confidentiality of the data collected. A consent form was presented to the participants and they were required to sign it before any interviewing could be done. The study has received all applicable approvals from all relevant authorities (Appendix 2: Ethics form).

ParticipantsThe research involved participant sampling which involves use of a portion of the population to investigate the behaviour or the characteristics of the entire population (Creswell, 2009). This strategy assists in the cutting down on the time to be spent in the research process, energy, and financial resources. A more precise and efficient sampling strategy was the Stratified sampling where the population is divided into sub-sets of specific size and similar characteristics, where the subsets (or strata) make different quantities of the entire population. The use of sub-sets enhances comparisons and correlation to be made between them making the technique flexible in regard to geographical enquiries. (Kothari, 2008)

This sampling was carried out around restaurants and eating places around the university as these are convenient places to meet with target population of the research study.

Since a qualitative research involves more research input, this required recruiting a number of participants. The sub set was made of international students who are over 18 years old and who hang around the eating places. The participants were also required to be residing around the university and be willing to participate in the exercise.

References

Pribis; Pencak; Grajales. 2010. Beliefs and Attitudes toward Vegetarian Lifestyle across Generations. Nutrients; Volume 2; Issue 5; Pages 523-531. Molecular Diversity Preservation International. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nu2050523.

Puckett R 2004, Food service manual for health care institutions, 3rd ed. Jossey-Bass: San Francisco CA.

Simon S, 2003, A survey of the nutritional adequacy of meals served and eaten by patients, Nursing Practice 2001, vol. 4, no. 2 , pp.7-11.

Wojtaszek CA, et al. 2005, Nutrition impact symptoms in the oncology patient, OncolIss, vol. 17, no. 1, pp.15-7.

Woods M, et al. 2009, Effect of a dietary intervention and n-3 fatty acid supplementation on measures of serum lipid and insulin sensitivity in persons with HIV, American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, vol. 90, no. 6, pp.1566–78.

literature review on Logistic Regression

IntroductionIn this part, a form of bankruptcy calculation provisional on financial statements is tendered. Despite giving an argument on the recommended variables, the subject of functional form is presented. The condition most frequently applied for the bankruptcy calculation model denotes that the extent at which two variables have the capability to replace another holding projected risk unaffected will be continuous. If the feature confined by sole financial ratios is believed less a replacement for any other feature as this proportion grows, this restraint might not be suitable. Particularly, the configuration of constant compensation will instigate calculations susceptible to noncredible outliers. A requirement of the logit model that permits flexible rates of reparation is aggravated. The model is projected along with the regression effects are reported.

Second; by querying the direct associations flanked by financial ratios as well as the meticulous result of bankruptcy, a model configuration that establishes a higher bound on probability estimation is investigated. By reference to an easy model of errors, the specification differentiates between the likelihood of bankruptcy along with the likelihood of insolvency. While the forecasted likelihoods of bankruptcy could be assessed empirically, the occurrence of bankruptcy is not apparent. However, provisional on the model configuration, chances can be obtained for this occurrence, as well. An appraisal is tendered on the capability of the model to gauge the overall growth in credit dangers for the limited company liability sectors. Individual chances of bankruptcy are proliferated with the company’s debt to create a calculation of expected loss in deficiency of improved values. This computation is then collected and fixed with entire loan losses for the limited company liability sector over its existence. Lastly, the likelihood of reviewing the outcome of macro variables in a small panel of companies are discovered. With indication to aggregation possessions of a probit model, a proposal is tendered on how to approximate time-definite consequences on collective data as a way to make out macro coefficients that could be comprised in the micro-level representation.

Financial ratios reproduce key connections amid financial variables and give basic principles for financial preparation and study. Ratios are regularly employed as a foundation for construing a firm’s performance patterns, its trade, fiscal and market risk patterns, and a variety of commercial, strategic judgments, for example, unifications, consolidations and insolvency. Even though ratios have been productively employed in multiple discriminant analysis (MDA) to categorize unsuccessful and non failed companies, the procedure used in choosing ratios has been condemned. Numerous researchers have experimented in their appraisal of bankruptcy researches that a brute empiricism is characteristically employed to choose the financial percentages for their representations. Previous insolvency forecasting analysis did not encompass a theory of financial breakdown on which to center the selection of definite ratios; consequently, the empirical judgments cannot be simplified to designate the most probable forecasters of financial malfunction. In attempting to comprehend the failure course and distinguishing that financial worth is centered on future cash information current and flow, cash centered subsidize flow model established by Helfcrt as well as proposed in the FASB.

Logistic Regression

In the untimely periods, Cornfield (2000, 97) was the foremost researcher to employ logistic regression (LR). They were followed by other researchers who employed this method to approximate the likelihood of happening of a course as a purpose of additional variables. The deployment of LR augmented in the 1980s, plus currently it comprises one of the mainly extensively used techniques in the study in, Finance, and particularly in accounting. Among the intentions in accounting is to study those features that at a specified instance influence the survival of an accounting difficulty, and to direct the element of the latter, plus to make models with prognostic capability that can review the stipulated Finance problem (Menard 2011, 7). The logistic regression representation is extremely suitable for addressing subjects of this category, offered an adequately copious and well-distributed model is obtainable. Additionally, in scheming the study, and trailing an adequate writing investigation and with excellent familiarity of the topic, all the imperative variables for clarifying the reaction variable ought to be considered (Diaz-Quijano 2012, 9).

Logistic Regression is a trendy and useful system for modeling resounding results as a function of both permanent and clear-cut variables. The issue is: how forceful is it? Or rather: how forceful are the general executions? Even a comprehensive reference for instance scrutinizing clear-cut data, instigates an experimental observation. From a hypothetical perspective, the logistic general linear model is a basic difficulty to solve. The optimized measure is log-concave, which in turn denotes that there is an exclusive global limit and no confined limits to get cornered (El-Habil 2012, 78). Gradients usually imply bearings that are continually improving. Nevertheless, the standard techniques of resolving the logistic universal linear model are the Newton-Raphson technique or the directly correlated iteratively reweighted technique that uses least squares (Allison 2012, 34). Furthermore, these techniques, while characteristically extremely fast, do not certify convergence in all situations. If Newton-Raphson methods are not appealing, numerous other optimization systems could be employed:

•Stochastic gradient descent

•Conjugate gradient

A controlling dilemma with logistic regression emerges from an attribute of training data: divisions of results that are split or quasi split by divisions of the varying aspects.

The Logistic Regression Model

Logistic regression study scrutinizes the manipulation of various aspects on a dichotomous effect by approximating the likelihood of the event’s happening. This is implemented by investigating the connection between one or more sovereign variables as well as the dichotomous result log odds by calculating the log odds alterations of the dependable aspects rather than the individual dependent variable. The ratio of log odds ratio is that of two odds plus it is a synopsis computation of the association of two variables. The employment of the log odds relation in logistic regression gives a more unsophisticated account of the probabilistic connection of the changeable aspects and effect in contrast to a linear regression from which linear associations and further rich statistics can be inferred.

There exist two representations of logistic regression, which are binomial logistic regression in addition to multinomial logistic regression. Binominal logistic regression is characteristically used in the event the dependent aspect that is varying is dichotomous while the autonomous variables are either permanent or definite variables. Logistic regression is majorly employed in this circumstance. In the event, the dependent variable is never dichotomous in nature and consists of over two instances; a multinomial logistic regression could be utilized. It is as well known as logit regression, whereas multinomial logistic regression encompasses truly comparable consequences to binominal logistic regression.

Data

Dependent variable dichotomous (clear cut) (bearing a seatbelt or avoiding to bear a seatbelt). If this is not the case then, multinomial (logit) regression is supposed to be employed;

Dependent or Autonomous variables: interval or clear cut

Suppositions:

Presumes a linear connection stuck between the logit of the IVs along with DVs

Nevertheless, it does not presume a liner connection between the clear-cut dependent along with independent variables

2. The example is great- dependability of estimation reduces or goes down when there are merely a handful of cases

3. Ivs are never considered as linear functions of one other

4. Customary distribution is not essential for the dependent aspect or variable.

5. Homoscedasticity is never essential for every level of the autonomous variables.

6. Generally distributed accounts of mistakes are not presupposed.

7. The independent variables require not being in the levels of intervals

Logistic Regression is considered to be a category of the analytical model, which can be employed when the intended variable is a definite variable having two levels – for instance live/die, having an ailment or not having the ailment, buying a product or not buying, winning a race or not winning and many more. A logistic regression representation never not entail judgment trees and is further similar to nonlinear regression, for example, fixing a polynomial to a collection of statistics and values. Logistic regression could be employed primarily with two categories of the intended target variables:

1. A clear-cut target variable, which has precisely two levels (for example a binominal or dichotomous variable).

2. A constant target variable, which has significances in the degrees of 0.0 to 1.0 in lieu of possibility values or percentages.

As an instance of logistic regression, a person should reflect on a research whose intention is to form the reply to a drug as a purpose of the dosage of the medicine given. The intended (dependent) variable, reaction, has a degree 1 if the patient is productively given medication through the drug while 0 if the medicine is not thriving.

The Logistic Model Formula 

This formula calculates the likelihood of the selected reaction being functional figures of the forecaster variables. If a forecaster variable is clear-cut variable having two significances, then one distinct variable the values is assigned the price 1 while the other is allocated the 0 price. It should be noted that DTREG permits a person to employ any figure for clear-cut variables for instance “Male” and “Female”, plus it exchanges these figurative names into 0/1 standards. Therefore, a person does not need being apprehensive of recoding clear-cut values (Consentino & Claeskens 2011, 13). If a forecaster variable is a definite variable having over two levels, then a disconnected model variable is engendered to symbolize every of the levels except for one that is prohibited. The significance of the model variable is 1 on stipulations that the variable is of that class, and the significance is 0 on the stipulations that the variable is of any additional category. Therefore, not an excess of one model variable will be given level 1. On stipulations that the variable encompasses the value of the barred class, after that all of the model variables created for the variable are given the level 0 (Yu-Pin et al 2011, 67). DTREG repeatedly engenders the model variables for clear-cut forecaster variables; all a person requires doing is to select variables as being conditional and clear-cut. In conclusion, the logistic principle has every constant predictor variable, every dichotomous forecaster variable having a 0 or 1 value, and a model variable for each sort of forecaster variables having over two groups minus one group. The outline of the logistic representation principle and rule is: P = 1/(1+exp(-(B0 + B1*X1 + B2*X2 + … + Bk*Xk)))

Where B0 is an invariable while Bi are forecaster variables coefficients (or model variables in the instance of multicategory forecaster variables). The calculated value, P, is a probability in the assortment 0 to 1. The exp () role and function is e elevated to a power.

Maximum Likelihood (ML)

Maximum likelihood, as well termed as the ML technique, is the system of establishing the worth of one or additional constraints for a known marker that makes the acknowledged probability distribution a limit. The greatest likelihood approximate for a limit is denoted. Maximum Likelihood Estimation (MLE)

With this information, a person is in a situation to bring in the idea of the likelihood. If the likelihood, of an occurrence X being reliant on representation parameters p is articulated as

P (X | p)

Therefore, he or she could now discuss the likelihood

L (p | X)

That is to state, the probability of the limits given the statistics.

For nearly all reasonable models, people are capable of finding and establishing certain data that are additionally probable than others. The intention of maximum likelihood evaluation is to unearth the limit value(s) that creates the scrutinized data most probably. This is since the probability of the limits given the data is described to be comparable to the likelihood of the data provided the limits (in principle, they are comparative to one other, other than this does not influence the opinion). If this was done in the trade of making forecasts centered on a position of solid suppositions, then probability interests would be developed – the likelihood of certain results happening or not happening. Nevertheless, in the instance of data study, the moment they have been scrutinized they are preset, there exists no probability part to them any longer (the expression data emerges from the Latin expression denoting given). More interest is in the probability of the representation limits that underlie the preset data.

In CDMA, a key feature that bounds system efficiency is the multiuser intrusion instigated by the user’s nonorthogonality autographed waveforms. Multiuser recognition is an influential tool for fighting the consequences of this multiuser intrusion. Under a number of typical assumptions, the ML multiuser sensor is best in the logic that it offers the minimum fault likelihood in mutually denoting the data signs of all users. Regrettably, to execute the ML sensor, it is essential to resolve a risky combinatorial optimization (A simple method for estimating relative risk using logistic regression 2012, 54).

An Easy Case of MLE

To repeat, the easy theory of maximum likelihood limit view is this: get the parameter values, which create the scrutinized data most probably. How would person carry out this in an easy coin toss try out? Specifically, before assuming that p is a definite value (0.5) the researcher might desire to discover the MLE of p, provided with a dataset. Further than parameter inference, the probability framework permits a researcher to create trials of parameter values. For instance, the researcher might desire to inquire whether or not the predicted p is different considerably from 0.5 or it does not (Kline 2011, 89). This experiment is fundamentally inquiring if there is proof that the coin is unfair. There are further examples of the way such experiments can be carried out with the introduction of the theory of a probability ratio test.

On an assumption that the experimenter tosses a coin 100 occasions and the result appears to be 56 heads along with 44 tails. In place of supposing that p is 0.5, the researcher’s intention is to get the MLE value for p (Sason & Shamai 2006, 76). After that, the researcher will want to inquire if this value varies notably from 0.50. There is a way how this is done. First of all, the p value is established, which makes the scrutinized data most probably. As stated, the scrutinized data are currently set. They will be invariables that are inserted into the binomial likelihood model:-

•n = 100 the whole amount of throws)

•h = 56 the whole amount of heads)

In psychosomatic science, researchers seek out to discover general rules and principles that direct the conduct under study. As these rules and codes are not openly apparent, they are devised in aspects of theories. In mathematical formation, such theories about the formation and internal operation of the behavioral course of significance are affirmed in aspects of parametric relations of likelihood deliveries termed as models. The objective of the formation is to infer the outline of the basic course by checking the feasibility of such formations.

Once a formation is stated with its parameters, as well as, the collection of data, a person is in a position to assess its integrity of fit, specifically, how well it has the capability to fit in the scrutinized data. Integrity of fit is reviewed by establishing parameter figures of a representation that excellently suits the data—a process called parameter inference (Gould et al 2006, 56). There exist two universal techniques of parameter inference. These are LSE and MLE methods of inference. The former has primarily been a well-liked option of model suitability in Finance and is joined to many recognizable arithmetical perceptions, for example, linear regression, summation of squares faults, ratio variance explain, as well as the root mean squared variation (Skiadas 2010, 54). LSE that unlike MLE needs no or negligible distributional suppositions is practical for finding an expressive calculation for the rationale of summarizing experiential data, other than it has no foundation for experimenting hypotheses or making confidence periods (Hosmer & Lemeshow 2000, 67).

Conversely, MLE is never as extensively distinguished among modelers in Finance; however it is a typical progression to parameter inference and suggestion in values. MLE has lots of best properties in inference: satisfactoriness (total information regarding the parameter of concern enclosed in its MLE estimator); uniformity (accurate parameter figure that created the data retrieved asymptotically, for example, statistics of satisfactorily large trials); effectiveness (lowest-possible variation of parameter approximations attained asymptotically); as well as parameterization invariance. On the contrary, no such aspects can be articulated concerning LSE (Wesołowski 2009, 90). Per se, most researchers would not perceive LSE as a common process for parameter inference, but somewhat as a technique that is principally employed with linear regression formations. Additionally, a preponderance of the inference techniques in statistics is established centering on MLE. For instance, MLE is a precondition engulfing the chi-square experiment, the Gsquare experiment, Bayesian techniques, assumption with missing statistics, modeling of arbitrary consequences, and lots of model selection principles, for example, the Akaike statistics criterion, as well as, the Bayesian information principles (Chatterjee & Hadi 2006, 23).

Bibliography

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Chatterjee, S., & Hadi, A. S. (2006). Regression Analysis by Example. Hoboken (N.J.), Wiley-

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Diaz-Quijano, F 2012, ‘A simple method for estimating relative risk using logistic regression’,

BMC Medical Research Methodology, 12, p. 14, MEDLINE with Full Text, EBSCOhost, viewed 26 August 2012.

El-Habil, AM 2012, ‘An Application on Multinomial Logistic Regression Model’, Pakistan

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Introductory Psychology Writing Assignment

Introductory Psychology Writing Assignment

Assignment Overview

All Introductory Psychology students are required to complete an Introductory Psychology Writing Assignment. There are many beliefs about psychology that are commonly held by the general public, despite the fact that they are not generally supported by scientific research. Often, people evaluate how likely these claims are to be true based upon their personal experience, anecdotes or stories, and how well the claims match their intuitions about human behavior, thoughts, and feelings. Scientists test the accuracy of these claims by systematically collecting and analyzing these observations (i.e., data) to make determinations about what is true.

In this assignment, you are going to be a psychological detective. Listed below are five common beliefs that have been questioned by many psychologists. You will pick ONE of the questionable claims listed below. Your job is to find two empirical research articles that scientifically test some aspect of your chosen claim, and to use that evidence to evaluate the claim’s support (or lack thereof). For each of the claims, some suggested keywords to begin your search are provided (you likely will need to search other terms, as well), along with a sample empirical research article addressing this claim. You may not use this article as one of your two sources.

Challenged psychological beliefs:

1. Children raised by gay parents are likely to experience negative life outcomes.

Some Suggested Keywords for PsycInfo: (“gay parent*” OR “homosexual parent*”) AND (“outcome*” OR

“well-being” OR “disorder*” OR “health”)

Sample empirical research article addressing this topic:

Farr, R. H., & Patterson, C. J. (2013). Coparenting among lesbian, gay, and heterosexual couples:

Associations with adopted children’s outcomes. Child Development, 84(4), 1226-1240. doi:http://dx.doi.org.aurarialibrary.idm.oclc.org/10.1111/cdev.120462. Most autistic individuals exhibit savant abilities.

Some Suggested Keywords: (“autism” OR “autistic” ) AND savant*

Sample empirical research article:

Scheuffgen, K., Happé, F., Anderson, M., & Frith, U. (2000). High “intelligence,” low “IQ”? speed of

processing and measured IQ in children with autism.Development and Psychopathology, 12(1), 83-90. doi:http://dx.doi.org.aurarialibrary.idm.oclc.org/10.1017/S095457940000105X3. Eyewitness testimony is an accurate and trustworthy form of evidence in the justice system.

Some Suggested Keywords: (“eyewitness” OR “witness testimony”) AND (“accurate” OR “accuracy”)

Sample empirical research article:

Wells, G. L., Ferguson, T. J., & Lindsay, R. C. (1981). The tractability of eyewitness confidence and its

implications for triers of fact. Journal of Applied Psychology, 66(6), 688-696. doi:http://dx.doi.org.aurarialibrary.idm.oclc.org/10.1037/0021-9010.66.6.6884. Thinking positive thoughts reduces the chances of suffering from serious illnesses, such as cancer.

Some Suggested Keywords: (“positive thinking” OR “optimism” ) AND (“health outcomes” OR “cancer”) Sample empirical research article:

De Moor, J. S., De Moor, C. A., Basen-Engquist, K., Kudelka, A., Bevers, M. W., & Cohen, L. (2006).

Optimism, distress, health-related quality of life, and change in cancer antigen 125 among patients with ovarian cancer undergoing chemotherapy. Psychosomatic Medicine, 68(4), 555-562. doi:http://dx.doi.org.aurarialibrary.idm.oclc.org/10.1097/01.psy.0000222379.713895. Students perform better when under pressure, such as when they procrastinate until last minute.

Some Suggested Keywords: “procrastinat*” AND “performance”

Sample empirical research article:

Michinov, N., Brunot, S., Le Bohec, O., Juhel, J., & Delaval, M. (2011). Procrastination, participation, and

performance in online learning environments.Computers & Education, 56(1), 243-252. doi:http://dx.doi.org.aurarialibrary.idm.oclc.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2010.07.025Assignment Details

Writing Guidelines

Try to avoid sharing personal experiences and/or personal opinions.

Paraphrase. DO NOT use quotes.

Please be careful not to plagiarize. To receive credit for this paper, you must review the articles in your own words.

Make sure that you clearly cite your sources.

You are expected to write effectively and thoughtfully. You’re encouraged to use the Writing Center’s free services to help you achieve these goals: https://msudenver.edu/writectr/Formatting Guidelines

The paper should be 3-4 pages (not including title page and references) in length and should be typed.

The entire paper should be double-spaced with 12-point font size.

All margins should be one inch.

Paper Outline

Include an APA-formatted title page.

Introduce the topic and explain the purpose of the paper

Identify which claim you are investigating.

Explain why the topic is important and interesting.

II. Summarize the two empirical research articles that you read.

Briefly (no more than a few sentences) describe how you located your sources.

Selecting your articles: BE SURE THAT YOU SELECT EMPIRICAL STUDY ARTICLES FROM SCHOLARLY JOURNALS. Empirical study articles present research conducted by the authors (i.e. not literature reviews or editorials). To ensure that you’re selecting empirical study articles, check the abstract for references to participants, procedure, and results. If the abstract does not clearly indicate that this article is empirical search, you can check the text of the article for a “Methods” section. Your instructor will explain how to find empirical articles in scholarly journals.

Your instructor will specify how you should make paper submissions. You should submit online through Launchpad. In addition, you should submit the two full-text articles you’re citing in your paper. Your instructor will provide instructions for how these sources should be submitted.

Evaluate the sources—do these sources appear credible/trustworthy (i.e. How was the research funded; What was the review process for publication)? Why or why not? (Note: You will need to read the entire article in order to do this – not just the abstract.)

Describe what the researchers did in their study.

State who was in the study (participants).

Include the number of men, women, ages, ethnicities, etc.

State how the participants were asked to be in the study (recruited)

State what the participants were asked to do.

In addition to naming the questionnaires or tasks, also explain what the questionnaires are measuring and what the tasks are. Describe them well enough so that the reader has an idea of what kinds of questions the participants answered or what kinds of tasks they completed.

In what ways were the results consistent with the hypotheses/predictions? Any surprising findings? Do not worry about trying to understand the statistics; the author will explain the statistics in the “Discussion” section of the article.

What did you perceive as being the strengths of these studies? What were their limitations?

III. Addressing the Claim

Draw a conclusion about your claim. Does the claim seem accurate or inaccurate?

Be sure to support your answer.

When were your articles published? Would you expect the findings to still hold true? Why?

Which groups of people do these articles help you better understand? Do these articles help you understand all people, or only certain subgroups (i.e. are there populations for whom you think you’d find different results than those found in the articles – generations, nationalities, race, etc.?). You’re NOT being ask who would be interested in this research, but to whom the findings apply.

IV. Reference Page

You need a complete reference for the article that you reviewed. Be sure that your references are in the most current APA style.(Your instructor will cover this style, or you can go to http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/ and visit the “Research and Citation” section.)

CITATIONS:

Representing someone else’s research and/or words as your own is considered plagiarism. Plagiarism is a serious offense, and can result in failing the course. In order to avoid plagiarism, you must give credit to the author(s) whose work you are citing. APA (American Psychological Association) format is used for citations made within the text. Below are examples of sentences and how they should be cited.

Citations include the author’s last name and the year of publication.

One author: Cite the author’s last name and the year the article was published. Example: In a recent study of reaction times (Rogers, 2012)…or Rogers (2012) compared reaction times…

Multiple authors: When a work has two authors, always cite both names every time the reference occurs in the text. Example: (Smith & Smith, 2009). When a work has three or more authors, include only the surname of the first author followed by et al. Example: (Wasserstein et al., 2012).

Citation of a work discussed in another source: If a work is cited in your article, and you did not read the original work cited, you should use the following citation format: (Siedenberg, 2011 as cited in Coltheart, 2013)…

Important: Any portion of your paper that contains information from the article needs to be cited. Since you will reference the article you read for this assignment multiple times, you will end up citing that article in your paper multiple times. If you are in doubt about whether you should cite it then cite it! Better to be safe than sorry.

-205740614045References

Geenen, N. Y. R., Hohelüchter, M., Langholf, V., & Walther, E. (2014). The beneficial effects of prosocial spending on happiness: Work hard, make money, and spend it on others? The Journal of Positive Psychology, 9(3), 204-208. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2014.891154

00References

Geenen, N. Y. R., Hohelüchter, M., Langholf, V., & Walther, E. (2014). The beneficial effects of prosocial spending on happiness: Work hard, make money, and spend it on others? The Journal of Positive Psychology, 9(3), 204-208. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2014.891154

REFERENCES: You will probably have only two references on your reference page. List them in alphabetical order. The reference page should be on a separate page. The following APA format should be used for your reference page:

Introductory speech

Introductory speech

Greetings to you all present today. As you all know, we have been dealing with drug addictions affecting many students within the campus, and we have been trying to help them through all that we can. However, it is a challenging part of our studies and our lives even though it is fully paying, not in financial ability but through the satisfaction of saving a soul from going too deep into drugs where they cannot be redeemed. Therefore today we have a special speaker with us. She will take us through what she has experienced as she has dealt with people affected by drug addiction and how it is possible to get out of that hook that seems difficult to deal with.

I am glad to introduce Brenda Browne, the director division of mental health and addiction services. She is also the addictions administrator in Passaic County within the department of human resources. She is very resourceful, and her presence here today will enable us to get more insights and more information on what is meant by being fully addicted and which addiction level is safe. She will inform us of how to deal with our friends who are addicted and how to help them realize that they can change. Therefore let us all welcome her and listen carefully to her wisdom which she has got from dealing with all types of addiction patients up to now. Welcome to our group; we are happy to have you in our presence.

Investigating Brand Solidarity

Investigating Brand Solidarity

Student’s Name

Institution Affiliation

Course Name and Code

Professor’s Name

Date

Investigating Brand Solidarity

Starbucks aimed to increase its workforce diversity and offer chances to specific groups of people. It has pledged to hire 25,000 military spouses and veterans by 2025 as part of its attempts to be socially accountable. The company reached this milestone six years ahead of expectations and now employs more than five thousand active-duty military personnel’s families and veterans each year. Starbucks has just announced the creation of a leadership program that would connect black, indigenous, and other people of color (BIPOC) with top leaders to promote investment in collaboration opportunities and further the company’s commitment to racial and social equity. Furthermore, by 2030, the chain hopes to have 20% of its corporate workforce comprise BIPOC and 30% of its retail and manufacturing workforce comprise BIPOC. In addition, they do not discriminate based on race or gender at any of their locations. In addition, they extend friendly services and pleasantries to every member of society.

Starbucks is a firm that adheres to the notion of corporate solidarity, which is currently the method that is used to achieve a good standard practice within the company as well as to achieve their survival in the market. The organization fulfills its ethical and social responsibilities inside and outside of the business. In point of fact, there is usually a seminar held once a year for workers on how to properly use their time, how to treat other employees and customers successfully, and how they can resolve disagreements between employees and customers. Indeed, their platform generates common benefits for everyone, and I maintain that it doesn’t matter why you believe this; as long as you do, the business will endure for a longer period of time.

Intro Outline for Exp. 1 Framing Effects

Intro Outline for Exp. 1: Framing Effects

NOTE: You cannot take sentences directly from this outline. You must write in all in your own words

Articles:

Johnson (1987)

Chien, et al. (1996)

Kahneman & Tversky (1973)

Hawkins & Hastie (1990)

Slovic & Fischhoff (1977)

YOU must find at least 5 more (you can use these in other sections of the paper as well)

Introduce and define problem: we all make decisions and choices involving risk (uncertainty). Usually we are good at it; sometimes, not so much! (1,3)

With uncertain decisions, we are essentially “predicting” the likelihood of our desired result (1, 3)

When dealing with uncertainty, 3 things affect our predictions (3)

Prior knowledge 

Specific info about the subject/object/person

“expected accuracy of prediction” (YOU MUST EXPLAIN WHAT THIS MEANS ☺ )

C. When expected accuracy is low (i.e. we are not confident in our assessment), we rely more/add more weight to prior knowledge and specific info (1, 3)

This is especially true when we are not given all the information needed (1, 3)

We then rely even more heavily on prior knowledge and heuristics

D.  New information can influence us to not rely on our own heuristics or prior experience (1)

2. One such type of influence is framing (how things are worded).

A. Define, explain, give example

B. Some research looked at whether people would chose a positively framed option over a negatively framed one, even if they were the same (1, others, your own articles?)

Demographic differences? 

Seems robust- works on everyone,  in every situation

Except: when we take into account EUT and Prospect Theory (3)

Expected Utility Theory: when making decisions, we assess probable outcomes by weighing the probabilities of each of them occurring (3)

Prospect Theory: a modified (improved?) version of the EUT (your own articles)

Focuses on decisions involving risk (gambles or prospects)

Insurance example: People like the certainty of coverage for one event better than the possibility of coverage for a bunch of events

Especially when it’s better than the probability of what you might lose

We select the option that we feel is most useful to us

Compare to the idea of “you get what you pay for” (1)

Main point: people are risk aversive (avoid risk) when one of the options is a sure gain; and risk-takers when there is a certainty of a loss. 

note that this is about the certainty and sure-gain options, compared to the possible or probable options.

Researchers began looking at other factors that would influence our decision making, and if the Framing Effect is affected by these things. (your own articles)

Demographic differences (others?)

Hmm… so researchers began wondering if the TYPE of risk would be a factor

Morality (others?)

Monetary (2)

Mortality (2)

The results show…

However, overall, research has shown that we seem to be most affected by FE when

we are personally involved in the situation. So how about level of involvement?

Your own life? (others?)

Loved one’s life? (others?)

Strangers’ lives? (2, others?)

The results show…

3.5 Hindsight Bias

What is it? How does it influence decision-making/outcome judgments?

Why does Hindsight bias occur?

Possible explanations?

The current experiment (ours): Purpose:

To understand the susceptibility of people to the framing effect by measuring differing responses based on either a positively or negatively framed prompt.

Will replicate K&T ’81 experiment, with the exception that we will only be using mortality-based scenarios. (This article was not provided for Fall 2021)

Hypothesis

Introduction to Philosophy

Introduction to Philosophy

Student’s Name

Course

Date

Question 1

The categorical imperative, according to a German philosopher, Kant, is a formal procedure to evaluate any action performed as to whether it could be morally upright. According to Kant, the categorical imperative follows the rule that one should only justify an action to be ethical if that act could be generalized as a universal law. Thus, the categorical imperative is an objective, necessary rational principle that must always be followed despite any desire to do the contrary. The strengths of the categorical imperative include the universal acceptability of legal action. All human beings are seen as rational beings who would act in the same way because it is deemed the right thing to do so. Also, the CI is impartial since the actions categorized as moral are not guided by freewill but by general respect to the dignity of fellow humans. More so, the imperatives are based on reason and logic, which determines human behavior and choice. However, the CI has some weaknesses, such as lack of motivation, in realizing that something is irrational. There is also a conflicting duty in choosing the right way to follow based on the general acceptance of an issue (Lecture: Predominate Ethical Theories).

Utilitarianism is the ethical doctrine that suggests that actions are right if they are beneficial to the majority. It places the definition of right and wrong basically on the consequences of the work. For instance, killing a thief who would have made a large group of people to suffer is justifiable since the majority of the people will not suffer after his death. Among the strengths of this ethical approach is that it emphasizes on happiness, which is the aim of life for most people. Also, it is pragmatic in that it focuses on the consequences of an action. Besides, it is easy to follow since the consideration is whether the move will lead to happiness or suffering among the majority of people. However, utilitarianism may not be able to predict the consequence of an action before the action occurs. For example, would killing that thief lead to grief in his family? Or, would his death cause hatred among the killer and the thief’s society? Also, happiness is not easily defined as what makes one person happy may not make another happy as well. Therefore, I think the Kantian theory is better than utilitarianism because it focuses on the universality of an issue.

Question two

The pro-choice issue on abortion includes those people that buy the idea that abortion should be legalized. The pro-choice individuals believe that each woman has a right to decide what goes on in their body (lecture notes, abortion). According to Judith Jarvis Thomson, abortion is allowed in some instances and not in others. On one side, she argues that life starts at conception, and thus abortion is bringing an end to it. However, she also describes the right to life as not be unjustly killed, which in this case, abortion is no injustice to the unborn. She came up with some analogies like the case where a famous violist is hooked to another person for survival without the latter’s consent. If the person decides to detach the violist from his body, he will die to lack of support. However, it is morally right to determine what goes on with your body. And thus, detaching the violin would not be ethically correct. According to Beverly Harrison, the right to abortion helps in preventing class dominance. That is, if made illegal, rich women would still be able to pay, unlike the poor ones.

 On the other hand, John T. Noonan claims that personhood begins at conception, and changes follow after that. Therefore it would be wrong to commit abortion as it is seen as bringing an end to that development. He claims that the fetus holds the same life as a grown-up individual, and thus abortion is considered murder. Other pro-life activists support his argument and dictates that the government should have a say when it comes to abortion. The third approach to abortion is where a person can be both a pro-choice and pro-life. For instance, one may believe that abortion is terrible but refrain from warning people against it. A woman would be against abortion on a religious basis but allow another one to perform it on medical grounds.

Question 3

The phrase that ‘existence precedes essence’ is a central claim of existentialism, which means that personality is not built on a precise purpose, but rather, it is the choice of humans to engage in the use. According to existentialists, humans create their values by determining the meaning of their lives. Thus, it is the nature or essence of humans that lead to their existence. The idea that presence comes before essence is well explained by the philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre. However, the phrase, ‘essence precedes existence,’ is the traditional view that shows the selfishness of humans and that they are rational beings.

Sartre believes in the first phase of existence precedes essence. He believes that people are defined by what they surround themselves with, and thus, a difficult situation is only intolerable because the people allow it to be so. The feeling is evident through his claim that the world is a reflection of our freedom, where he meant that the world triggers people to react. To criticize the other phrase, Sartre claims that man first exists, establishes himself, fits in the world, and then defines his life afterward. Therefore, there is no way that the essence of a man would come before his existence. I agree with Sartre’s claim that ‘existence precedence essence.’ The reason for my choice is that for you to realize your nature and importance in life, you must first be in that life. Humans learn of different life aspects as they grow and interact with each other, thus increasing their value. Also, people are only defined (essence) according to their actions, for which they are responsible. Therefore, it is like humans to choose what to do and what not to do. For instance, for a person to be described as having an essence of being cruel, they must have shown cruelty in their behavior (Existentialism lecture). I believe that a person can choose not to be evil, and thus, it is not in their nature to be good or bad.

Question 4

Thomas Hobbes, in his Leviathan theory, suggests that human beings are motivated by the need to preserve themselves. He claims that naturally, people would do anything to maintain their life, which is short, poor, and nasty. Also, he claims that humans are motivated by the desire to gain, and that is why they are competitive and violent. Due to these perceptions, humans need a central government to control their desires by placing no space for the unjust. Similar to Socrates, Hobbes believes that political sensitivity is has been overtaken by liberalism. He also states that men will always strive for peace when they are treated as equals since they want to outdo each other. Nature treats all men equally, and therefore the government has a role of ensuring peace between men as they strive to be better than each other.

On the other hand, Jean-Jacques Rousseau described human beings as compassionate beings who are moral naturally. However, they adapt to changes in the pre-existing urban chaos and lose their natural compassion when subjected to the urge for money. Humans are prone to corruption to satisfy their greed for wealth and power. Therefore, the state is a collection of individuals who aspire to instill the morals in its people. The general will of the country is to determine the right from wrong and is established through laws. The public will of the state is created through the majority will of the people. Therefore, people rely on the government for peaceful co-existence and to prevent greed from overtaking their natural goodwill.

References

Dr. John Tamilio III, Lecture Notes: Abortion.

Existentialism lecture, A Brief Introduction to Existentialism Retrieved from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5HhGRfxH81M&t=2s.

Prof. John Tamilio III, Ph.D., Lecture: Predominate Ethical Theories