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Note making on Diversity

Note making on Diversity

These are notes derived from the various sources of information we used in our research on diversity and other issues.

1] Notes on:

Brislin, R. W. (2008). Working with Cultural Differences: Dealing Effectively with Diversity in the Workplace. Westport, Conn: Praeger

Definition

Diversity is generally defined as acknowledging, understanding, accepting, valuing, and celebrating differences among people with respect to age, class, ethnicity, gender, physical and mental ability, race, sexual orientation, spiritual practice, and public assistance status.

Adaptation of the workplace to suit diversity

Demographic changes (women in the workplace, organizational restructurings, and equal opportunity legislation) will require organizations to review their management practices and develop new and creative approaches to managing people. Changes will increase work performance and customer service.

Company profile and attractiveness

From the marketplace perspective, a company that promotes workplace diversity and an inclusive work environment adds to its attractiveness as an employer. A work place that is open to exploring new ideas and styles is especially appealing for the adventurous open-minded employees of Generation Y.

Competitive advantage

Diversity of the workforce is clearly here to stay. Business owners and managers, experts say, will still need to maintain or step up efforts to recruit and advance ethnic minorities each year. Essentially, because having a diverse work force a gives the company a lot more advantages to their competitors

Notes on:

Johnson, C. E. (2012). Meeting the Ethical Challenges of Leadership: Casting Light or Shadow. Thousand Oaks, Calif: SAGE.

Diversity is beneficial to both associates and employers. Although associates are interdependent in the workplace, respecting individual differences can increase productivity. Diversity in the workplace can reduce lawsuits and increase marketing opportunities, recruitment, creativity, and business image.

Notes on:

Cornelius, N. (2002). Building Workplace Equality: Ethics, Diversity and Inclusion. London: Thomson Learning

Globalization

The world’s increasing pace of globalization requires more interaction among people from diverse cultures, beliefs, and backgrounds than ever before. People no longer live and work in an insular marketplace; they are now part of a worldwide economy with competition coming from nearly every continent. It calls for the opening of non-traditional occupations to men and women of all creeds, colors, religions, races and social groupings and for making reasonable accommodations the workplace and work life for this to happen.

Dimensions of diversity

Diversity calls for diversity beyond just gender, race, or physical and intellectual abilities to include diversity in opinions, sexual preferences, social customs and mores, and other aspects of the variations in lives and lifestyles. There is a compelling generic business case for achieving and managing diversity in the workplace. There is also a model used to help organizations better understand diversity.

Four Layers of Diversity is used in many organizations across the country to frame the issue and encourage discussion and involvement in managing diversity. The multiple dimensions of diversity around which there is inclusion and exclusion are depicted in four concentric circles. Personality, relating to individual style and characteristics, is in the center. Whether a person is an introvert or extrovert, reflective or expressive, quick paced or methodical, a thinker or a doer, for example, all influence how the individual will be treated, get along with others, and progress in the organization.

The second layer, the Internal Dimensions, comprises the six aspects of ourselves over which we have little control. Our gender, age, sexual orientation, race, ethnicity, and physical ability are for the most part not choices, yet they influence our treatment in organizations, the roles we play in life, and the expectations of us, both our own and others. The third layer, External Dimensions, comprises those that are the result of life experiences and choices. Aspects such as religion, education, marital status, work experience, and recreational habits are areas around which employees can connect or disconnect, be valued or disrespected, depending on how these dimensions are seen and used. The last layer, Organizational Dimensions, contains those aspects of similarity and differences that are part of work in the organization. What difference might it make if someone is the CEO or an entry level employee, in marketing, manufacturing, human resources, or customer service, a manager or a union shop steward? These dimensions also affect both treatment of employees and productivity of the organization. All these aspects represent areas in which there may be similarity and common ground as well as differences. When well-managed, these differences have the potential to bring new perspectives, ideas, and viewpoints needed by the organization. However, if mismanaged, they can sow the seeds of conflict and misunderstanding that sabotage teamwork and productivity and hinder effectiveness. To maximize the ability to manage this complex set of differences, organizations need to have a framework and strategy.

Diversity as a tool for business enhancement

Having inside information on how to communicate and what a community wants in a product is a great asset. A multicultural company can penetrate and widen their markets with the knowledge of political, social, legal, economic, and cultural environments. Further, having someone within the organization who can negotiate and speak the language of the country is a very valuable asset to the corporation.

Diversity programs are considered to be good investments whose returns have been very beneficial to organization. Successful professionals are learning to demonstrate the contribution of diversity programs to the business on macro and micro levels.

The business case is about capturing talent, understanding markets, utilizing diverse perspectives for innovation, knowing how and how not to pitch products, and, ultimately, how to generate employee commitment. Executive leaders need to be role models and advocates for this strategic focus.

Effective management

Diversity is not a liberal ideological movement, to be supported or resisted. Rather, it is a reality in today’s business environment.

Managed well, diversity provides benefits that increase success However, when ignored or mismanaged, it brings challenges and obstacles that can hinder the organization’s ability to succeed. The right question then is not, do we have to deal with diversity, but rather, how do we manage it to reap its potential benefits? At its core, diversity is about inclusion and exclusion. The foundation for effectively leveraging diversity lies in defining it in a broad and inclusive way. Organizations that define it broadly, involving all dimensions of similarity and difference around which there are inclusions and exclusions that affect the business, find that there is greater buy-in and strategic relevance. There is also a stronger business case and less resistance when all in the organization can see themselves reflected in the definition and can identify inclusions and exclusions that play out in the organization every day through us-versus-them attitudes, stereotypes, assumptions, preconceived expectations, and differences in treatment. These dimensions also affect both treatment of employees and productivity of the organization. All these aspects represent areas in which there may be similarity and common ground as well as differences. However, if mismanaged, they can sow the seeds of conflict and misunderstanding that sabotage teamwork and productivity and hinder effectiveness. To maximize the ability to manage this complex set of differences, organizations need to have a framework and strategy. The following three areas of focus offer a framework. Understanding the Evolving Role of Cultural Diversity in the Workplace.

For an organization to get its arms around the complexity of diversity culture change, it needs to focus on three arenas:

(1) Individual attitudes and behaviors,

(2) Managerial skills and practices, and

(3) Organizational values and policies.

Notes any barriers to PR professional acquiring and demonstrating such capabilities in practice

Notes any barriers to PR professional acquiring and demonstrating such capabilities in practice

There are a number of factors that can hinder the PR professional from acquiring and demonstrating capabilities that are communicative and geared in the same direction as the CSR strategic agenda. One of these factors relates to how the organizational culture of the particular institution is driven in terms of its public relations. First, if the PR does not encourage or use interactive communication but rather only uses one way communication this can act as a barrier to achieving the communicative capabilities relevant to CSR agenda. Moreover, unethical activities intermarried with self-promotion can make it difficult for the professional to exhibit these capabilities. Rigidity can also deny the professional to realize the importance of flexibility in a dynamic world that changes with needs and interests of the stakeholders (Francesco 2010).

Meanwhile, if the professionals are embroiled in skeptic approach to the importance of CSR and merely look at it as an attempt for organizations to achieve positive publicity, this alone can act as a blocking veil to them (Sehic & Sabanovic 2008). In addition, there is tendency, as observed by Hart and Sharma (2004), to ignore some stakeholders that are basically non-human on the grounds that they are not central to the operation of the business and hence cannot help in achievement of the CSR strategic agendas. Yet, this point is intricately tied to the ability of the PR professionals to realize that flexibility in a dynamic environment is important such that every stakeholder is very important in determining the success of the strategic CSR agenda (Redington 2005). CEO leadership styles can also affect the end results of the strategies laid down in the organization-wide campaign to achieve CSR agenda. If the top-most management predominantly engages in short-term incentive based business approaches, this can deter them from seeing the bigger picture of a long-term approach that incorporates the strategic CSR agenda for the organization.

Reference

Francesco P. (2010) Developing Corporate Social Responsibility: A European Perspective. London: Edward Elgar Publishing

Hart, S. and S. Sharma: 2004, ‘Engaging Fringe Stakeholders for Competitive Imagination’, Academy of Management Executive 18, 8–18.

Redington I (2005). Making CSR Happen: the contribution of people management. London: Sage Publications

Sehic, D. & Sabanovic J (2008). Corporate social responsibility of B&H companies in globalization. – 5th International Scientific Conference in Business http://leidykla.vgtu.lt/conferences/BUS_AND_MANA_2008/soc-economical/598-605-G-Art-Sehic_Sabanovic.pdf

Deductive Memo

Deductive Memo

Author’s Name

Institutional Affiliation

Deductive Memo

To: Charles Duane Baker, Massachusetts Governor

From: Kinn Elliot, Legislative Strategist for the Vapor Technology Association (VTA)

Date: November 22, 2019.

Re: Lifting the Temporary Vaping Ban

Greetings

This memo is created to summarize the facts that guide the recommendations of Vapor Technology Association to the Massachusetts Governor’s office regarding lifting the four-month ban the Governor instituted on September 24, 2019, on responsibly manufactured vaping products. The fundamental conviction is that these recommendations are consistent with circumventing many legal battles surrounding the ban.

The Governor’s declaration of public health emergency towards combating the epidemic of vaping-related lung injuries and the subsequent Governor’s temporary ban on vaping in Massachusetts are hereby acknowledged with the utmost respect. However, following critical evaluation and in-depth reevaluation of the current situation, we at Vapor Technology Association feel that the ban could only be a partial win for the Governor as it will only prompt more needless legal battles. Our critical analysis culminated in the identification of several facts and factors that will only plague and exacerbate the political and legal atmosphere in Massachusetts.

The first and foremost fact is that the temporary ban is controversial and precarious because it is biased in the way in which nicotine-vaping products are categorized. While we acknowledge FDA’S warning against the use of tetrahydrocannabinol-containing products, we also observe that the agency strongly emphasizes that the vaping products that pose dangers to public health are the tetrahydrocannabinol-containing products purchased on the streets because they are irresponsibility manufactured and unregulated (Hernandez, 2019; O’Connor, 2012). So, when launching this crackdown, responsibly manufactured commercial vaping products that contain only nicotine and not tetrahydrocannabinol should have been exempted as they adhere to the standards provided regarding regulating the amount of nicotine. By failing to acknowledge the existence of responsible and standards-driven manufacturers of nicotine-flavored vaping products, this ban is simply an executive overreach that will drag the Governor into more legal battles without a doubt.

The second fact is that the ban will not be a long-term solution to the vaping crisis because it is flawed. One of its flaws, identified by Judge Donald Wilkins, is the failure to address whether the public health emergency exists only for adult users of vaping products or for both adult and young users. Critically, the ban is based chiefly on the epidemic of lung injuries among young users of nicotine-vaping products (Garrison, 2019; Raymond, 2019). Indeed, this fault was the basis upon which Judge Wilkins recommended the resubmission of the order covering nicotine products as an emergency directive. Another flaw of this ban is that it does serve the interests of the public per se. This is because it will stimulate many ex-smokers of tobacco who had switched to e-cigarettes to return to heavy smoking of cigars, a fact that Siegel, a Boston University professor of community health sciences, confirms (Garrison, 2019). By creating circumstances that force ex-smokers to return to their smoking behaviors, this ban will trigger more public health concerns, thereby culminating in many potential lawsuits.

The third fact is that this ban is a dreadful recipe for legal battles because it will facilitate the creation of new black markets that sell unregulated and subpar vaping products in Massachusetts. We are wary that when responsibly manufactured flavored vaping products are completely swept out, nicotine users will not just quit. Siegel corroborates our concern by maintaining that the Governor’s ban will stimulate the formation of black markets that sell unregulated vaping products (Garrison, 2019). For this reason, some nicotine users and ex-smokers will turn to cigarette smoking while a significant majority will resort to seeking unregulated vaping-product black markets. They will do so to continue sourcing flavored e-cigars, which are a preference for many adults and youths as Satel (2019) submits. What this means is that the political move of banning responsibly manufactured vaping products will only brace the use of dubious and bootleg vaping products, leading to unprecedented legal problems. It is worth recalling that black markets do not only exacerbate the challenges of legal product regulation but also complicate policy-centered efforts to combat crises (Maloney & Hernandez, 2019).

Based on these three facts, it is evidence that the ban will more likely exacerbate the vaping crisis than mitigate it. Eventually, the exacerbation of the crisis will yield more lawsuits and legal battles than legitimate solutions. Therefore, our recommendation and appeal to the Massachusetts Governor are that he changes his mind and lift this ban towards avoiding such further legal battles. The Governor needs to know that the relative safety of e-cigarettes has been documented across other states in the United States. He also needs to appreciate the research-based confirmation that responsibly produced vaping products have played an irrefutable role in lessening the adult smoking rate to 14%, along with curtailing the youth smoking prevalence (Prochaska & Benowitz, 2019; Rhoades et al., 2019; Satel, 2019). While the ethos of banning vaping is the relative risk involved, research outcomes confirm the benefits of smoking harm reduction through vaping. So, the Governor is entreated to lift this ban and look for better alternatives to dealing with the epidemic of vaping-related lung injuries because targeting responsible producers of regulated vaping products will only stimulate needless legal battles.

Respectfully

Kinn Elliot.

References

O’Connor, R. J. (2012). Non-cigarette tobacco products: what have we learnt and where are we headed?. Tobacco control, 21(2), 181-190.

Prochaska, J. J., & Benowitz, N. L. (2019). Current advances in research in treatment and recovery: Nicotine addiction. Science advances, 5(10), eaay9763.

Rhoades, D. A., Comiford, A. L., Dvorak, J. D., Ding, K., Hopkins, M., Spicer, P., … & Doescher, M. P. (2019). Vaping patterns, nicotine dependence and reasons for vaping among American Indian dual users of cigarettes and electronic cigarettes. BMC public health, 19(1), 1211.

Hernandez, S. (October 04, 2019). The US Government Is Now Warning People Not To Use Any Vaping Products With THC. Buzz Feed News. Retrieved November 22, 2019, from https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/salvadorhernandez/no-vaping-thc-warning-fda.

Maloney, J., & Hernandez, D. (October 06, 2019). Vaping’s black market complicates efforts to combat crises. The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved November 22, 2019, from https://www.wsj.com/articles/vapings-black-market-complicates-efforts-to-combat-crises-11570354204.

Raymond, N. (October 21, 2019). Massachusetts vaping sales ban can stand but needs fixes: Judge. Thompson Reuters. Retrieved November 22, 2019, from https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-vaping-massachusetts/massachusetts-vaping-sales-ban-can-stand-but-needs-fixes-judge-idUSKBN1X01SL.

Garrison, J. (October 21, 2019). Massachusetts vaping ban can stand for now, but state must fix flaws in a week, judge says. USA Today. Gannett Satellite Information Network, LLC. Retrieved November 22, 2019, from https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2019/10/21/judge-rules-massachusetts-vaping-ban-can-stand-if-issues-addressed/4051203002/.

Satel, S. (October 23, 2019). The vaping overreaction. The Atlantic. Retrieved November 22, 2019, from https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2019/10/danger-vaping-bans/600451/.

Deductive validity according to Lewis Carroll

Deductive validity according to Lewis Carroll

Question (a)

Deductive validity refers to the fact that the premises provided upon which conclusions are being made are strong and can only lead towards one conclusion, if the premises are taken to be true. In fact, the solidity of a deductive argument significantly depends on the validity of the premises, if the premises are not valid, most likely the conclusion made from the premise is not valid as well. Key to constructing a deductively valid argument is the ability to include universal syllogism, predicate instantiation, as well as an affirmation of the antecedent. Euclid’s argument does meet the three conditions described above. The assertion that what equal the same are equal serves to establish universal syllogism, the second premise leads to predicate instantiation, as it equates the two sides of as triangle to the “same”, before reaffirming the antecedent, which is done by restating the initial premise, and relating it to the fact that the two sides are both equal to the same, essentially making them equal. Euclid’s statement is therefore deductively valid as it meets the necessary conditions, with acceptance of the two premises as true the only requirement for the conclusion to be accepted. It would not be logical to accept the first two statements as true and reject the conclusion.

Question (b)

The tortoise is unwilling to accept the conclusion because it does not fully believe in the two premises provided by Euclid’s assertion. In fact, it is perhaps plausible to claim that the tortoise does not believe in the logical truth of Euclid’s premises, which essentially means that he does not operate within the logical constants that the two premises provide. This further means that the tortoise is therefore, in a position to create other possible conclusions that are not within the logical constants provided by the two premise statements. In essence, the tortoise is not operating within the boundaries of logic, as he admits that he is willing to accept the assertions and aspersions made by the two premises but not the conclusion. As as such, it is possible to argue that the tortoise is not willing to accept not just the conclusions provided by Euclid, but also the use of logical argument. By not being bound by a need to abide by logical thought, the tortoise is not likely to agree with the logical constants applied in the argument, as well as the logical consequences normally necessary for a conclusion to be made in cases of logical arguments.

Question (c)

Lewis Carroll attempts to highlight the futility of attempting to engage in a logical argument with an entity that does not believe in operating with the logical constants usually applied in logical argument. The manner with which the tortoise continually convinces Achilles to keep on writing new premises with each attempt to convince him is proof of the fact that the tortoise was not really willing to engage in logical argument, specifically to recognize the concept of logical consequences. Furthermore, at the initial stage when the tortoise tells Achilles at the beginning of their argument, that he shall need all the leaves of the notebook, which at the beginning is almost empty. This is clear proof that the mind of the tortoise is essentially made up, and there is nothing really that Achilles can do, to convince the tortoise of the fact that by accepting the two premises, he is already reaffirming belief in the logical argument put forth by Euclid. The fact that even after reaching 1001 attempts, the tortoise still sees them proceeding with no change in opinion, is perhaps the clearest display of a lack of faith and belief in the mantra of logical argument.

Question (d)

The story of Achilles and the Tortoise casts doubt on the rational acceptability of deductive logic, because the tortoise while accepting that the first two premises are true, proceeds to reject the conclusion arising from it is a clear indication that it does not believe in the concept of logical consequence. Secondly, the tortoise’s insistence on Achille’s writing whatever premise they arrive at is most likely to demonstrated to Achille’s the futility of his attempts at convincing him using logical argument or reasons. The argument essentially served to remind all of the most important part of any argument. First, there is a huge need to establish the ground rules of argument. Without this, putting up a convincing argument, particularly using logical reasoning, can be very difficult. In essence, one comes to the realization that providing a clear connection between the premises offered and the conclusion arrived at is very important. as without proper explanation, proving proof for logical arguments and reaffirmation of the claims can only be done by appealing to the individuals belief in the process that is logical argument. This in particular, is the greatest problem faced by Achilles, as he has no tangible evidence he could use to substantiate claims within the conclusion. At the same time, being able to convince an individual through a logical argument, requires that one is conversant with the deductive logical approach, which can same plenty of time.

Reference

Carroll, L. (1895) What the Tortoise said toAchilles.

Defendants Rights, The bill of rights

Defendant’s Rights, The bill of rights

Name

Institution

Abstract

The bill of rights is meant to safeguard the rights of all Americans against violation by the very government meant to uphold the law. These rights and privileges also apply to citizens accused or convicted of crimes. Specifically, the Fourth, Fifth, Sixth and Eighth Amendments provide safeguards and protections and privileges for defendants as well as convicts. These provisions have over time influenced the criminal justice system in different ways. A good example, is the Fifth Amendment right to be free from self incrimination, as well as to be subjected to the due process of the law, which has even led to the rise of aspects such as the Miranda warning; currently an integral part of law enforcement. The implementation of these four amendments has greatly affected, not just law enforcement, but also the courts and the correctional facilities.

Defendant’s Rights

The bills of rights normally acts as the main source of citizen’s rights, and are captured in the constitution, as the first ten amendments. These amendments usually safeguard the American people from being taken advantage of by their government. Specifically, four bills usually provide guidance and procedures that apply to citizens who have been accused of crime, are defendants in criminal cases, as well as inmates in prisons or jails. These bills include: the Fourth amendment, the Fifth Amendment, the Sixth amendment and the Eighth amendment. The Fourth amendment protects defendants from being subjected to unreasonable searches or the findings of such searches being seized. The Fifth Amendment not only provides the defendant with the privilege against self incrimination, but it also promises the “due process of law and ensures safe guards against double jeopardy (the government trying a defendant twice for the same offence). The Sixth Amendment outlines the basic conditions that must be met before criminal trials proceed; amongst them being the right of the defendant to counsel. Finally, the Eighth Amendment focuses on inmates and their welfare by forbidding the government from subjecting them to unusual and cruel punishments (Hall, 1960). These protections also include protections against state or local governments. Failures by government or state organs to follow these set procedures usually results in suppression of statements made by the defendant or evidence arising from such statements. As such, these four amendments have significantly influenced criminal justice over the years, governing not just law enforcement, but also profoundly determining the course of a number of criminal trials over the years.

In particular, the Miranda warning, based on both the Fifth and the Sixth Amendments and named based on the outcome of the famous Miranda versus Arizona trial (384 U.S), has taken centre stage in a number of trials, with the failure to follow the required procedures being responsible for the suppression of evidence on numerous occasions. The Fifth Amendment specifies that the defendant is privileged from self incrimination and must be subjected to due process, part of which overlap into the provisions of the Sixth amendment, on requirements that must be met before a trial can proceed. The Miranda warning forms part of the substantive due process which requires that police officers make defendants aware of their rights regarding statements they may make and their usability. Further, the warning must also include information regarding the defendant’s right to an attorney and an affirmative response indicating that they understand. The warning, therefore, offers a clear outline of the basis of interaction between law enforcement and the defendant. Overall, the warning requires that a defendant must intelligently, voluntarily and knowingly waive the rights provided within these amendments, especially the Fifth Amendment, in order for the government to be able to use statements the defendant makes, as evidence. Based on the precedent set by the Supreme court in whereby it ruled that a admitting a statement elicited from the suspect without having informed them of their Fifth Amendment rights, amounted to violation of the defendant’s Fifth Amendment right (Ernesto Arturo Miranda in this case). Furthermore, the court also found that it went against the defendant’s Sixth Amendment right to consult counsel and to have counsel present before speaking to law enforcement officers (Fletcher, 2000).

Other subsequent prominent cases in which the question of Miranda rights and violations of the Fifth and Sixth amendments have taken centre stage include: United States v. Patane, in which even though physical evidence (a gun) obtained through an un-Mirandized statement was initially suppressed, it was subsequently allowed by the Court of Appeals. In a different case, Pennyslvania vs. Muniz, the court convicted the defendant even though the incriminating statements and evidence were obtained during a field sobriety test without the administration of the Miranda warning. The courts held that the un-Mirandized statements were actually unsolicited, making them admissible. In a totally different dimension to the case the courts found that the defendants confessions were inadmissible simply because the defendant had confessed under the belief that his attorney was present while that was not the case (Kanovitz, J. & Kanovitz M., 2008).

Personally, I do agree with how the right has been implemented so far, as it not only safeguards the rights of the defendant, but it also encourages professionalism and an adherence to the law. Although at times the loopholes provided by the need for and application of the Miranda warning are exploited by defendants, its existence ensures adherence to due process, which ensures that there is no miscarriage of justice (Williams, 1983). On the other hand, the Miranda warning is a simple manifestation of the different interpretations that can result from the same laws, as different circumstances call for different interpretations and application of the Fifth Amendment. For instance in the case of Miranda v. Arizona, the court upheld that his rights had been violated, while in the cases of Muniz and Patane, the courts failed to uphold such rulings. This indicates that despite the existence of such laws safeguarding the rights of defendants, when the due process is followed, justice often prevails (Gross, 2005).

References

Fletcher, G. (2000). Rethinking Criminal Law. Oxford University Press.

Gross, H. (2005, reissue). A Theory of Criminal Justice. Oxford University Press

Hall, J. (1960). General Principles of Criminal Law. Lexis Law Pub.

Miranda v. Arizona, 384 U.S. 436 (1966)

Kanovitz, J. R. and Kanovitz, M. I. (2008). Constitutional Law (11th ed.). Matthew Bender andCompany, Inc. Newark, NJ. 694-697

Pennsylvania v. Muniz, 496 U.S. 582 (1990)

Williams, G. (1983). Textbook of Criminal Law. Stevens & Sons.

Define vulnerability with regard to health. Why are certain groups considered more vulnerable than others (5 points)

Access Assignment Last Name:

Answer the following questions.

Define vulnerability with regard to health. Why are certain groups considered more vulnerable than others? (5 points)

In the health sector, vulnerability refers to the relevantly higher susceptibility to diseases and illnesses as a result of the lack of or poor integration into the nation’s system of healthcare due to factors like ethnicity, culture, economy, or health bias. The seclusion increases the level of risk to this group of people since they lack access to medical care. The most common groups to be referred to as vulnerable are the racial and ethnic minority, both the rural and urban poor, immigrants that lack proper documentation and disabled people. When we look at the racial and ethnic group, the vulnerability comes along in the sense that the patterns of residential segregation cut them off from the supply of providers, they are faced by a language barrier that hinders communication between them and the doctors and also because they have different employment patterns resulting to low levels of employer-based insurance coverage. The poor fall under this category since they lack the monetary resources required to get access to health care. If they get medical attention, they cannot afford the drugs required for consequent treatment. Immigrants that lack proper documentation are restricted from health care since they are scared of being brought to authorities and they do not want to risk deportation back to their countries. The disabled face the challenge of having small employers dismissing them on the grounds that they have a high chance of having expensive medical needs; something they cannot afford.

Identify the 4 major racial/ethnic minority categories in the United States (1 pt. each, 4 total)

Hispanic and Latino Americans make up the largest minority

HYPERLINK “http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_American” o “African American” African Americans are the largest racial minority, amounting to nearly 13% of the population

Asian American or Alaska Native

Native Hawaiian (Other Pacific Islander)

What are the 4 major health concerns of children? (1 pt. each, 4 total)

Immunization

HYPERLINK “http://www.news-medical.net/health/Asthma.aspx” Asthma and allergies

Childhood injury

Child abuse, neglect and domestic violence 

Identify the 6 major government funded measures for Rural Health and briefly define each. (2 points each, 12 points total)

Improved Management of Health Programs in Rural Areas

This involves the consolidation, by local bodies in conjunction with the government, of existing funding for specified rural health service delivery programs in agreed rural and remote communities. The local bodies will have the ability to purchase the most relevant health services to the local community.

Health Service Delivery in Rural Areas

These will involve the re-engineering of the administrative arrangements currently under use for rural health programs including the development of new agreements for funding that involve funds for multiple programs.

Reviewing the Royal Flying Doctor Service

A national review of the Royal Flying Doctor Service was conducted to examine the funding, operational activities and governance arrangements. Recommendations were made on how to improve the service and make it accessible to the people in rural areas.

Increasing the access rate to primary health care

The access to primary and allied health services will be maintained through the government facilities with particular focus on the remote and rural areas. National rural primary health projects will be initiated and the government will continue funding projects in rural areas.

The Rural Private Access (RPA) Program

This program was included in the budget and was meant to increase access to private health services in rural areas. It sought to the realize the diversity of the services and make private insurable health services available in rural areas.

Initiative to Support Calamity stricken people who suffered mentally

This program is aimed at providing funds to building of the capacity of rural areas to respond to calamities like drought and the psychological effects it comes with.

Briefly define a MUA. (4 pts.)

MUA is the acronym denoting Medically Underserved Areas which are areas or places that having declared to have very few primary care providers hence high rates of infant mortality. These areas are characterized by high poverty levels and are dominated by old people.

Briefly define a HPSA. (4 pts.)

HPSA is an acronym meaning Health Professional Shortage Areas. These are areas designated as having inadequate level of primary medical care, dental or mental health practitioners and are categorized into geographic areas like a county, a demographic area like a low income population or institutional area like a comprehensive health center

Who are the 2 groups most affected by AIDS? (2 pts.)

The gay people since they know they will get a HIV infection so they just want to get over with it; they will use medication to live longer. They also get tired of condom use since they believe they can tell an infected man from a “clean” one.

Bisexuals due to viral ‘bridging’ that occur when a bisexual man contracts HIV from another man and then transmits it to a female partner.  They are also seen to have very low levels of condom use.

References

Institute of Medicine (U.S.). (2011). The health of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender people: Building a foundation for better understanding. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.

Ricketts, T. C. (2007). Rural health in the United States. New York: Oxford University Press.

Type your name in the upper-right corner of this page next to Last Name Save your file in the Rich Text Format (.rtf). HYPERLINK “http://repo.pmi.edu/online/Master_Documents/Online_Student_Orientation/Lesson 4 Tutorial/player.html” What’s this? Include the term Access and your First Name when saving your file. Example: Access_David.rtf Upload your completed document using the Browse button, and then click the Submit button.

Points Possible: 35

Defining Conflict and Identifying Personal Mediation Skills

Name:

Institution:

Course:

Tutor:

Date:

Defining Conflict and Identifying Personal Mediation Skills

From a sociological point of view, conflicts are a common occurrence in human relationships because of the fact that humans hold varied views and perceptions towards common things and issues. In a work environment, human conflicts are common and have diverse impacts on the performance of the affected employees. Basically, a conflict refers to a state of opposition that occurs when individuals carry out activities that are not mutually consistent. Usually, it is characterized by a form of disagreement in which the parties involved consider the opposing views to be a threat to their concerns, interests or needs. The respective individuals may want to do a similar thing using different ways or may want to pursue different things that are incompatible.

The conflict situation is usually resolved when inherent differences are reconciled and made consistent to each other. Within a social context, the causes of conflicts are wide and varied. In addition, their magnitude is different and the implications that they have on the holistic wellbeing of the individuals in work environments are diverse. Generally, it is widely agreed that conflicts can be potentially harmful if they are allowed to persist. For this reason, various approaches are employed in addressing the conflicts.

In his review, Moore (2003) indicates that the manner in which a conflict is approached directly influences the nature of its management. For this reason, it is important for relevant parties to review the conflict scenario and adopt approaches that would enhance resolution as opposed to escalation. To begin with, the collaboration approach reviews the perceptions of warring parties while asserting authoritative views at the same time. In particular, collaboration reviews the main differences between the involved parties, identifies the major issues and seeks to find a solution through mutual agreement. This is sustainable because the conflicting parties contribute equally to the ultimate solution.

A conflict can also be approached through compromising. In this regard, the warring parties are made to forego certain needs in order to resolve the problem. The accommodating approach on the other hand involves one party accepting the perception of the other party in a bid to reinstate a stable relationship. In certain instances, Boulle, Colatrella and Picchioni (2008) indicate that a conflict can call for avoidance. In this respect, one or both parties delay their response to the conflict or simply withdraw from it. This usually works well in cases where individuals or organizations are very angry and wish to withdraw in a bid to cool off in order to be able to approach the conflict in a more rational manner. Notably, all these approaches are vital in different contexts and are useful for managing a variety of conflicts.

Perhaps the most sustainable and useful approach to conflict resolution pertains to mediation. Cahn and Abigail (2007) contend that the process of mediation is very complex and technical and as such, it requires certain specialized skills. An analysis of my personal competencies of negotiation shows that I have certain mediation skills that have enabled me to resolve a couple of conflicts in an organizational environment. Statistical evidence ascertains that organizations are liable to conflicting scenarios because of the different nature of their human resources. One of the most important mediation skills that I consider myself to be proficient in is active listening. In this regard, I have the ability to give my full attention to whatever the warring parties say. I take sufficient time to understand the various points and assertions made by the respective persons and make inferences accordingly. Whenever I do not understand any point being made by an individual, I ask appropriate questions and request for clarification accordingly. Most importantly, I refrain from frequent interruptions in order to give the warring parties a chance to express their claims with ease.

Then, I have superb skills pertaining to reframing and summarizing whatever the warring parties have said. Through summary, I am always able to clarify understanding of main concerns, strictly focus on key issues, allow the warring parties to change whatever they previously said and correct disordered statements and assertions. In most cases, I seldom stop summarizing until the respective party agrees with whatever I have noted down. According to Boulle et al (2008), this implies that the party in question agrees to what it has said. Most importantly, it gives the party a chance to undertake reflection and enables me to adjust or clarify interpretations. On the other hand, reframing of statements gives me an opportunity to adjust, reorder or change statements or words in order to clarify their meanings and understand the underlying intentions of the parties.

Also, I have critical thinking skills that are useful for effective interpretation of meanings. McCorkle and Reese (2004) argue that use of reasoning and logic is of paramount importance in any mediation process. This ability has been particularly important in enabling me to evaluate the credibility of alternative conclusions, strategies or solutions that can enhance problem resolution. In addition, it has been useful for enabling me to analyze and interpret the views and perceptions of the warring parties objectively. In this regard, Wilmot and Hocker (2007) assert that objectivity is very important as it eliminates incidences of favoritism that undermine the credibility of the decisions arrived at.

Nonetheless, there are certain negotiation skills that I am not proficient in and which I require further development. At this point, it is worth acknowledging that attainment of negotiation skills is progressive. Individuals wishing to perfect their negotiation skills require a significant period of time as well as sufficient experience. In essence, negotiation is a learning process that requires patience and consistency. One of the fundamental skills that I consider myself to be lacking pertains to memorization. In particular, I am incompetent in remembering information, pictures, words and procedures with utmost clarity. This in some cases makes it difficult to complete the process of mediation within the stipulated time and attain the desirable quality of results.

Then, I also lack sufficient inductive reasoning skills that are imperative for making inferences accordingly. Basically, inductive reasoning empowers a mediator to establish general rules and be able to reach at viable conclusions. Bush and Folger (2004) indicate that mediators with this ability are creative and can establish relationships between events or statements that are unrelated. This ability is also useful in identifying flaws in statements and determining the credibility of assertions that conflicting parties make. This hastens the mediation process as factual information can be easily be filtered from a pool of false or flawed statements. In addition, inductive reasoning enables a mediator to make timely and effective decisions regarding the process. Developing the preceding skills is essential and it would enable me to attain the highest level of competency in mediation.

References

Boulle, L., Colatrella, M. & Picchioni, A. (2008). Mediation: Skills and techniques. New York: LexisNexis

Bush, R. & Folger, J. (2004). The promise of mediation: The transformative approach to conflict. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Cahn, D., & Abigail, R. (2007). Managing conflict through communication. (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

McCorkle, S. & Reese, M. (2004). Mediation theory and practice. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon

Moore, C. (2003). The mediation process: Practical strategies for resolving conflict. (3rd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Wilmot, W., & Hocker, J. (2007). Interpersonal conflict. (7th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

Defining Social Conflicts and Complexity of Social Conflics

Defining Social Conflicts and Complexity of Social Conflics

Introduction

Social conflicts present an important aspect in sociology, which formulates solutions to various challenges that characterize the human society. To this end, sociology studies have been conducted to provide prescriptions of dealing with social conflicts. In this article, various perspectives of the social conflict topic are discussed as contained in a book chapter and a journal article. Definition of social conflicts and their complexity are approached from different perspectives by different authors and the discussion is concluded with a view of the relevant questions that tie the two together. Since the conflict topic is a huge area that attracts interventions that range from diagnosis of intrapersonal and interpersonal conflicts to resolution, a specific and limited area of interest must be picked at a time for significant contribution to be made.

Kriesberg, Louis., Constructive conflicts: from escalation to resolution. Lanham, MA: Rowman & Littlefied Publishing Group, Inc., 2007. Print

Definition of Social Conflicts

The author of this book dedicates a subtopic on conflicts to the perspective of defining social conflicts, which is an important step in construction of appropriate sociological intervention. As mentioned above, the diagnosis of a conflict must be involved in the design of respective intervention (2). The author clearly diagnoses the existence of a conflict by manifestation of incompatible beliefs between the conflicting individuals. Further clarification of the social conflict involves social environment, number of individuals and the manifestation of the dispute, where the author describes the tensions likely to emerge in the dispute. Perhaps an important element of a conflict definition that the author introduces in the chapter is belief by each party to the conflict that they are facing opposition from the other party. Accordingly, the issue of competition among the individuals or groups of persons involved in the conflict emerges since each side wants to overcome the other’s opposing belief (3).

In this definition, the author clarifies that the involved parties must perceive the dispute as a conflict which finally forces them to create the division in thought and belief. Without the aspect of awareness of opposing perceptions resulting into some form of competition, the author reckons that it is difficult to amount to a social conflict as defined in the text. As an illustration, the author gives an account of people competing for employment, yet due to the lack of focus on each other’s intentions, it cannot be quantified as a social conflict. In order for such a scenario to be raised to a social conflict, the author gives a perspective of divisive thoughts in among the competitors such as discrimination on ethnicity and gender.

An equally important aspect of the definition of social conflict is added in the form of continuity in the conflict. Since the social setting implies continued interactions between the individuals, the author argues that the aspect of disruption of the society by the division brought by the conflict must be felt (3). In order to translate this definition to the wider society challenges of unity, it is important that the definition of the conflict is done before designing conflict resolution that aims at destroying the conflict’s building blocks observed in the definition.

Braun, Andreas., Heinke, Eva-Maria., Neumann, Martin., Saqalli, Mehdi. & Srbljinovic, Armano. “Challenges in Modeling Social Conflicts: Grappling with Polysemy,” Journal of Artificial Societies and Social Simulation, 14.3(2011): 9 ( HYPERLINK “http://jasss.soc.surrey.ac.uk/14/3/9.html” http://jasss.soc.surrey.ac.uk/14/3/9.html)

Complexity of Social Conflicts

In this journal article that highlights the complexity of defining social conflicts, the authors concur with earlier observations that dealing with conflicts must be informed from the appropriate diagnosis and identification of the challenge. In light of the nature of social challenges facing the society, sociologists must define the conflict within certain standards of conflicts referred to as simulations. Modeling of social conflicts assists sociologists to design interventions and prescribe solutions to resolve the division in the society (para. 1). The authors explain that the simulations classify conflicts on the nature of the complexity, which makes it easy to pick recommended solutions to deal with the problems. As observed in Kriesberg (2), these authors make the observation that definition of the conflict becomes the foundation of the recommended approach to handle the damaging effects of the conflict in the social setting. As a contribution to the definition of the social problem, the authors provide a list of 16 criteria that have been used by social academicians to classify conflicts (para. 9). The classification adds on the perspectives discussed by Kriesberg (2) for the definition of the social conflict.

On the wider concept of violent confrontations witnessed in extreme competition in social conflicts, the authors outline some common features that assist in definition of the conflict. Firstly, some connectivity is witnessed among the conflicting parties, which underpins the social setting of the society that lives together to learn the differences in beliefs. Secondly, the competition resists changes likely to advance the status of the other party usually resulting in a brutal feeling. Thirdly, conflicts are differentiated from ordinary tension due to the level of commitment to sustain the division, which is usually very high in a conflict than an ordinary tension.

Finally, the authors identify the openness of challenging the difference to be present in a social conflict, which makes private and personal conflicts less likely to amount into a social conflict (para. 13). The authors (para. 14) introduce the aspect of rational analysis which explains the motivation of the parties to a conflict to continue holding hard lines in the conflict. There are different reasons why persons end up in a social conflict, which must be defined as clearly as possible to come up with a solution. Complex nature of social conflicts implies that the sociologists must not confine their contribution to one approach when designing solutions (para. 26).

Kriesberg, Louis., Constructive conflicts: from escalation to resolution. Lanham, MA: Rowman & Littlefied Publishing Group, Inc., 2007. Print

Questions on Social Conflicts

Regarding the complexity of the definition of social conflict and the design of solutions to the standoffs, the author provides similar contribution as observed in Braun et al (9). Similarity arises from the fact that the author dedicates an insightful subtopic in chapter 1 by the title “Questions About Social Conflicts” (4). In the text, it is clear that the factors of violent conflicts can be traced back from the interests of the conflicting parties as contained in Braun et al (para. 13). Since the range of social conflicts is very wide in a diverse society, it is important to interrogate various social elements that could be failing in making the society live without extreme conflicts. Among the most questionable areas of the social setting include the integrity of the social policy in use.

Kriesberg outlines the payoff matrix that complicates options of individuals when they consider their own interests rather than their common good in the puzzle (8). The author argues that the complexity of conflicts is defined by the cooperation willingness with which individuals party to a conflict are likely to approach a conflict. International conflicts are also discussed to highlight the need for social conflict resolution mechanisms to be based on a cost-benefit analysis for the overall benefit of the society. In this consideration, the author makes a contribution that concludes that the best approach to solve a conflict is to adopt a wide approach that utilizes more options for a more accurate decision (10).

Works Cited

Braun, Andreas., Heinke, Eva-Maria., Neumann, Martin., Saqalli, Mehdi. & Srbljinovic, Armano. “Challenges in Modeling Social Conflicts: Grappling with Polysemy,” Journal of Artificial Societies and Social Simulation, 14.3(2011): 9

Kriesberg, Louis., Constructive conflicts: from escalation to resolution. Lanham, MA: Rowman & Littlefied Publishing Group, Inc., 2007. Print

Defining Transformational Change

Defining Transformational Change

Transformational change refers to dynamic adjustments to an organization, resulting from a shift from processes and strategies that have previously been used. All the relevant people in the organization work as a team to ensure changes are smoothly integrated in the organization over a period of time. It requires the internalization of the change by employees, and adjustments made at both individual and organization levels. Transformational change is done to increase the organization’s competitive advantage in an industry.

Individuals in an organization change their attitudes, perceptions and behaviors to adapt to changes. It involves expanding the mindset of the individual and organization and how they operate. According to Harigopal, conditions that lead to transformational change are the experience or anticipation of severe threat to survival and the perceived or felt inadequacy in current organizational strategy, design and functions to meet external threats.

Examples of areas of transformational change within an organization are shifted from being product-driven to being consumer-driven. This requires the organization to switch its way of doing business to concentrate on customers, and ensuring they are satisfied with products, as opposed to producing many products and ensuring the most sales are made. Another example is in changing the structure of the organization to create more divisions. This requires some processes to be split, so that they are taken care of by different units within the organization. Introduction of new products is also a form of transformational change.

Transformation challenges incurred during the change involve people in the process and the leadership. This is because it is hard to predict how people will react to changes, no matter how much they are prepared. Leadership during transformational change is extremely vital, especially in ensuring employees are inspired to change, and encouraging them to adopt new strategies that are being introduced. Some leaders may not be able to inspire and encourage employees directly involved, and to teach them what is expected.

During transformation, especially where a new product is being introduced, employees have to be given information on new processes to make the change easier. Introduction of new features in an existing product also requires the introduction of new processes. Positive leadership during transformation provides organization and members with the ability to achieve the transformation change. Leaders should show by example to their employees, so as to make the transformation change easier.

Another challenge to the implementation of new strategies is the unresponsiveness and/or non-compliance from employees in accepting new processes and strategies (Harigopal, 2006). Some employees may have to be moved to other processes as required for the production of new products. This will require them to learn the new process, which they may not be able to do as easily, and as fast as their previous duties, since they are new. This leads to a delay in the implementation process, as well as general discontent among employees in organization. Participation by employees and other stakeholders in the process will ensure the smooth transition and fast adoption. Communication should be enhanced between all levels, especially during implementation of smooth transition.

Systems targeted during transformation of an organization in the introduction of a new product include the technology used during the production and the automation of the system. The technology used in production is changed to accommodate the new product. The new product will be, according to research, done on customers’ needs before the transformation is implemented. It should ensure the customers’ satisfaction. The system is also automated to produce more products. This will reduce the number of employees required for the production process. Employees will also have to learn how to operate the new automated system. Products will be produced and made available in a timely manner, so that there are no shortages, and all processes go smoothly.

Innovation and creativity are necessary to the growth of an organization, due to current rapid changes in technology and short product life cycles. These affect the profitability of organization among other things. Innovation and creativity will be enhanced among employees by characteristics, such as openness to change, motivation to change and original problem solving by individuals themselves.

According to Shalley and Gilson, the individual is an ultimate source of new ideas, and, therefore, the foundation for the organization’s innovativeness. Creativeness entails finding opportunities for new products or finding new uses for existing equipment and processes within organization. It ensures the continuity of organization in the business world. Leaders can enhance these characteristics by supporting new ideas from employees and their application, if they are practicable. Continuous research should be done to identify new opportunities for organization.

Managers provide support by conducting research and ensuing they keep up with changes in technology and life cycles of products, so that organization maintains its competitive advantage. Leaders, who show support for innovation, empower their employees to encourage creativity even in future (Northhouse, 2001). Having a reward or incentive system for employees who provide innovative ideas also encourages people to be creative. This enhances the internalization of changes by employees which speeds up the transformation process, as they feel like part of the process. According to Northhouse, outstanding leadership provides motivation, openness to ideas and open communication with employees encourages innovation, and is useful even in higher leadership positions, as it will make them more approachable.

Steps in managing transformation change in an organization start from the identification of needs and opportunities of organization, and then assessing all risks involved before implementing the planned change. According to Dunphy, Griffiths and Benn, steps to be followed during the implementation of the experiment are:

Know where you are now

Develop the vision of the dream organization

Identify the gap

Assess the readiness for change

Set the scene for action

Secure the basic compliance

Move beyond compliance

Establish the performance criteria for compliance

Launch and manage the transformational change programme

Maintain the rage

The first three steps of the implementation process are already taken care of during the research part, where innovations are evaluated to ensure they are going to be reproductive. All risks are considered and the impact assessed. After this, organization is assessed for the readiness to change. This includes the capacity of organization to implement the change required, such as getting equipment and resources ready.

Setting the scene for action involves creating awareness within organization about the change that is about to be implemented (Dunphy, Griffiths and Benn, 2003). It helps employees and people involved to get ready for the project. This stage requires an outstanding leadership to inspire employees on the need for change. A strong case has to be made for the change that is being advocated for, so that they can ensure everyone understands implications.

Securing basic compliance involves complying with legal requirements and legitimate expectations of stakeholders (Dunphy, Griffiths and Benn, 2003). This sets the ground for the implementation of the new project without any law implications. It also ensures all safety requirements are met, so as to ensure employees will be safe during the implementation phase.

Next steps involve assessing the sustainability of the change that is about to be made. Measures are taken to build the capacity of organization in implementing the experiment. This includes buying the equipment necessary in the production of new products and for adding new features into existing products. The employees’ capacity to handle the change is also evaluated and improved, where needed.

This makes organization ready to take the transformation change. It also increases chances of the project becoming successful, and desired outcomes being achieved (Dunphy, Griffiths and Benn, 2003). Communication is vital in all steps to ensure the commitment of employees to the plan. The change programme is then introduced to organization, according to the plan. It is closely monitored to ensure it is adapted according to plan, and to monitor outcomes it brings.

The experiment is necessary for creativity, because it enables a leader to come up with ways to motivate employees to come up with new ideas. It gives an opportunity for employees to generate new ways of doing things, new products, and find opportunities for the growth of organization. This is vital to organization as a whole, because it gives competitive advantage to the company. It enables them to seize new opportunities, before other organizations discover them.

Involving employees in the innovation process makes it easier for them to assimilate the change when it is implemented. It also ensures the process is participative right from the beginning. It also ensures there is an open line of communication between managers and employees. This is extremely useful, even in later stages, as it allows managers to be aware of challenges during the implementation process, and even when the change has been smoothly integrated in organization.

When the research is done before implementing plans that will make a significant change in organization, it reduces chances of failure, and makes the implementation process more efficient. It shows the importance of the collaborative effort in the successful implementation of a project, as well as in leadership.

References

Dunphy, D. C., Griffiths, A. & Benn, S. (2003). Organizational Change for Corporate Sustainability: A Guide for Leaders and Change Agents for the Future. London, U. K: Routledge.

Harigopal, K. (2006). Management of Organizational Change: Leveraging Transformation. New Delhi: Response Books.

Northhouse, P.G. (2001). Leadership Theory and Practice. Thousand Oaks, C.A: Sage Publications.

Definition And Examples Of Annuities

Definition And Examples Of Annuities

Annuities are payments of equal amount of money remitted over particular period of time. An annuity is therefore a fixed payment that is made for a specific number of years from one party to another. As a general rule, the term annuity is used to refer to ordinary annuity except when a different form of similar payment is being referred to. This implies that there are different forms of annuities as highlighted below due to the attributes of the payment and computation. In order to determine the specific value of various forms of annuities, there are simple to complex formulae of computation such as compounding.

The complexity of the determination of the preset value of an annuity is usually dependent on the size of the entire value of the annuity. However, there are specific approaches that such computations can be given to solve the complexity issue. When referring to a general annuity, the timing of remittance is usually at the end of the specified unit period. One principle observation in annuities is that they are effected in a series following a specific frequency over the entire duration of remittance. To this end, annuities are treated differently from other forms of payments (Keown et al, 1998).

Give some examples of annuities

There are different types of annuities depending on various aspects of operating the annuity. Apart from a general annuity where remittances occur at the beginning of the year, the other annuities include the following. Firstly, a compound annuity is the type of an annuity where equal amounts of money are remitted for investment or savings purposes at every end of the period and allowing the money to grow. In such an annuity, the determination of the earnings obtained at the end of the savings period composed of the series of deposits can be computed through a mathematical formula. The technique used in this determination is a compounding equation that values the earnings of the distinct deposits until the end of the depositing period. The following formula is applied in the determination of a compound annuity;

FVn of an annuity=PMT[(FVIFi,n-1)/i]

Where FV= future value after growth period

PMT= value of frequent annuity deposits

i=annual interest rate

n=total number of years

Secondly, annuities due are the type of annuities whose actual dates of payments are brought forward by a year. In terms of actual date of remittance of many other forms of payments, it is supposed to occur at the end of every year but it is different in annuities due. The actual date of remitting the payments in annuities due is at the beginning of every payment period instead. It implies that in compounding the value of payments, an additional payment period is added. The following formula is applied;

FVn(annuity due)=PMT[{(1+i)n-1}/i] (1+i)=PMT(FVIFAi,n)(1+i)

Where,

FVIFAi,n= Future-Value Interest Factor for an Annuity (multiplier used to calculate FV)

Distinguish between an annuity and a perpetuity

Whereas an annuity has a specified duration of time during which payments are made, an annuity continues without a particular end. An annuity continues up to the end of the determined period by way of equal payments whereas perpetuity never ends.

Reference

Keown, A.J., & Martin, J.D., & Petty, J.W., & Scott Jr., D. F. (1998). Foundations of finance the logic and practice of financial management, 6th edn. New Jersey. Pearson Education Inc