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This is a comparison and contrast of differences between living at home and living in a college dormitory.

Dorm Life

This is a comparison and contrast of differences between living at home and living in a college dormitory. The differences will be compared and contrasted in the following paragraphs to show the likes and dislikes of each environment. There are three key differences from living at home and living in a college dormitory: availability, meal choices, and the most important factor is your privacy. These are the things that are bad about the dorm that makes me appreciate home more.

The first difference that will be discussed when comparing and contrasting living at home and living in the dorm is your availability. What is mint by availability is your access your friends have to bother or disturb you from studying. When living at home your friends have less access to your such as the phone or computer. When living in the dorm they can knock on your door at anytime they like. Some other problem with the availability of the dorm is if your trying to avoid someone they can easily find you without even trying very hard. When living at home it makes it easier to avoid those people.

The second difference that will be compared and contrasted between living at home and living in the dorm is eating habits. When living at home you tend to snack less because you are more active and you have more time to eat nutritious. However when living in the dorm you tend to eat a lot of snacks because you are too busy to eat healthy or do not have the means to prepare a healthy meal. What is mint by not being able to prepare a healthy meal is that you do not have the storage ability to keep nutritious food by not having a large refrigerator or a stovetop to cook on.

The third and biggest difference between living at home and living in the dorm is your privacy. The first issue with privacy is you cannot have a personal phone call without someone interfering where as at home you can lock your own room door or go in the bathroom to talk. Which lead us to the second issue with the privacy in the dorm which is not being able to use the bathroom peacefully without people walking in and out asking how much longer are you going to be in the shower. Dorm life is unlike home where you can use the bathroom at your own will and as long as you like.

There were three difference compared and contrasted between living in a college dormitory and living at home .The first thing discussed was the availability of living at home or in the dorm, the second thing discussed was home and dorm eating habits, and the last thing was the difference in privacy at home and the dorm life. These were the most important things to compare when comparing and contrasting dorm life with home life.

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Stakeholder Analysis &Market Based Clean Air

Clean Air

Stakeholder Analysis &Market Based Clean Air

The purpose of this report is to present a stakeholder analysis regarding current clean air initiatives in the Houston-Galveston eight county region. It is not an exhaustive report on clean air initiatives, but rather, an overview of policies affecting diesel engines and industries emitting nitrogen oxide (NOx) and particulate matter. This report will discuss the following: 1) Health, social, and economic costs due to NOx, ozone, and PM emissions and 2) Current and potential market-based air pollution policies. The above-mentioned points will be discussed in the context of several stakeholders in the region including the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the Texas Natural Resource Conservation Commission (TNRCC), the City of Houston, regional industries, and individual consumers.

The Houston-Galveston region, comprised of eight counties, is currently in non-attainment for ozone under the Clean Air Act (CAA). Because of EPA rules, the area is required to reach attainment in ozone levels by November 15, 2007. However, several challenges prevent the area from reaching attainment status. To comply with federal standards, the TNRCC has developed a State Implementation Plan (SIP) with the intent of lowering NOx emissions sufficiently to comply with the 1 hour ozone standard. NOx emissions must be lowered because they are a precursor to ozone formation when exposed to sunlight and high air temperatures. To deal with this problem, the City of Houston has its own emissions reduction plan to reduce NOx, and therefore reduce ground-level ozone. In its attempts to reduce these pollutants, the City also expects to lower fine particle emissions to ensure compliance with the proposed PM2.5 standard being pressed by the EPA. PM2.5 particles are extremely small dust and soot particles that present serious public health risks. This new standard will come into full effect during the next decade.

In the Houston-Galveston region, the two main sources of NOx and particulates are the ship channel industries and diesel engines. The SIP requires significant reductions from these two sources in the Houston area for the state to be in compliance with ozone standards. The EPA and TNRCC regulate these pollutants to improve public health and increase quality of life in the region. However, such regulation affects not only government budgets and industry bottom lines but also individual consumers. Indeed, current SIP guidelines will have a significant economic impact on regional income and economic growth.

The following analysis will focus on current policy and business positions relating to NOx and PM in the Houston-Galveston region. In doing so, it also highlights the City of Houston’s clean air leadership role in the region and its focus on research and technologies. The report will show that that all stakeholders in the Houston-Galveston region will benefit from the City’s research and technology efforts. The report will also offer opposing viewpoints to status-quo perspectives and recommend that future clean air programs be more purely market based, to more efficiently allocate pollution costs. The most effective and simple of these market based programs is a flexible cap and trade program that can be applied to both relevant pollutants. The City should also push to become an active participant in municipality allowance trading. By eliminating costly command and control measures, pollution will be reduced at lower costs to businesses and consumers. Any pollution reduction program will be costly and there is no panacea in clean air initiatives, but there are several market-based instruments that would be more efficient at tackling air pollution in the Houston-Galveston region.

Stakeholder Analysis & Market-Based Clean Air

The twentieth century brought new perspectives on air pollution, breeding new government regulation and also a new sense of corporate and individual responsibility. These new approaches accompanied a birth of new technologies in every field of study, including influential changes in manufacturing, services, transportation, and energy production. While growth in these sectors of the economy has brought considerable standard of living increases, they have not come without cost. According to classical economic theory, the free flowing markets that create such industry growth maximize society’s “utility.” This massive exchange of goods and services gives rise to a common good for the general public. However, such free enterprise is also prone to market failure, as is the case with air pollution.

Negative externalities are costs “arising from an economic transaction that falls on a third party and that is not taken into account by those who undertake the transaction.” Pollution is the most obvious form of negative externality. In other words, it is an external cost that society incurs that is not reflected in market transactions. Polluters do not pay for the costs they place on others. Society pays in the form of health, environmental, quality of life, and other costs like property damage or the cost of emission control devices. Most of these costs are past on to consumers by industry, and only part of these costs are offset by business opportunities created to clean up these self-generated problems.

Theoretically, the break-even point of pollution in a society will exist where the marginal benefits obtained from pollution equal the marginal costs of cleaning up the pollution. Although air pollution is never in its own right beneficial, the activities that cause pollution could be considered essential or necessary, like energy or transportation. Externalities like pollution can be placed in economic models as variables, but are problematic in that pollution costs and benefits are difficult to measure quantitatively. These costs are often dispersed to consumers through high health care costs or decreased property values. Hence, fairly distributing negative externalities like pollution is a constant challenge. Economic theory would suggest that there is an equilibrium of costs and benefits that will maximize utility within the pollution context, but society as a whole must determine what this balance is.

When asked whether they are for or against clean air, the public will shout in unison for cleaner air. However, the higher intricacies and complications surrounding clean air often lead the public to rational ignorance. In other words, the general public feels that the cost of acquiring additional air pollution information is greater than the benefits this information generates. Therefore, it is rational for the public to be ignorant on air pollution issues. Also, when governments determine environmental policies, they rely on imperfect information, sometimes stemming from uncertain scientific data. This also makes the public uncertain about air pollution policies. Even with imperfect scientific data, the economic and health costs of air pollution are still visible to the community.

THE COSTS: Relevant Criteria Pollutants

The EPA regulates the emissions of many criteria pollutants: ozone, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxide (NOx), particulate matter, and lead, to name a few. Among these pollutants, the ones of most interest to the Houston-Galveston region are ozone, NOx, and particulate matter. The region is currently in non-attainment status for ozone and runs the risk of becoming a non-attainment region for particulate matter in the future. The Houston Galveston region is currently in compliance for NOx but needs to reduce these emissions to reduce ozone, since NOx is a precursor to ozone.

When determining environmental policy, the EPA’s primary determinant is health. Therefore, the major studies surrounding criteria pollutants revolve around their effect on public health. The Texas Natural Resource Conservation Commission (TNRCC) is the body that regulates and enforces EPA standards for the Houston-Galveston region. Through the State Implementation Plan (SIP), the TNRCC’s goal is to “improve air quality to a degree that is beneficial” for human health.

Ozone is a reactive form of oxygen that exists in two portions of the atmosphere. When it is naturally occurring in the upper atmosphere, it can be beneficial to society, as it protects life from harmful ultraviolet rays from the sun. When it exists in the troposphere (lower levels of the atmosphere), it is called ground-level ozone. At this level, ozone can also protect people from harmful ultraviolet light, but it nevertheless has several adverse effects.

Ground-level ozone is mainly formed by chemical reactions of nitrogen oxides (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in sunlight. Due to sunlight and meteorological effects, high temperature areas like Houston and Los Angeles are prone to higher ozone levels. Presently, the acceptable EPA one-hour ozone standard is 12 parts per million (ppm), obtained by taking an average of one-hour concentration of ozone. Counties must not exceed this threshold more than three times per year to remain in attainment. In 1997, the EPA established a new standard at a threshold of .08 ppm for an eight-hour standard. This standard will be enforced within the next decade, and like the previous standard, ozone level averages must not exceed the standard more than three times per year to remain in attainment. For regions like Houston-Galveston, currently not in attainment, the EPA and TNRCC concentrate on the previous, less stringent standards first. The new rules will eventually bump non-attainment counties in the US from 106 to 335. The Houston-Galveston area is focusing on meeting current rules first.

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are important ingredients in the creation of ozone. VOCs are emitted by industrial sources (petrochemical plants, oil refineries, petroleum storage tanks) and also mobile sources (automobiles, trucks, motorcycles, airplanes, construction equipment). Not all VOCs are ozone forming as close to half of VOCs come from biogenic or natural sources like trees and vegetation. For this reason and because of VOC diversity, industries and environmental regions tend to focus more on NOx reductions to reduce ozone. The Texas Air Quality Study recently suggested that NOx reductions would be the most efficient way to reduce ozone in the Houston-Galveston region. Nonetheless, the region’s SIP requires a 25% reduction in VOCs by November 15, 2007 to meet the ozone standard.

Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) are the most significant ingredient in the formation of ozone. NOx is the term used to represent a “group of highly reactive gases, all of which contain nitrogen and oxygen in various amounts.” The pollutant is formed when fuels are “burned at high temperatures”, of which diesel engines and industry fuels are culpable. Since 1970, the emissions of six principle pollutants have decreased but NOx has increased by 10% in this same period due to economic growth.

Since NOx can be transported long distances, the EPA suggests that emissions be dealt with in a regional rather than a local manner. In the Houston-Galveston area, these emissions are dealt with by eight joint counties. In this region, industrial NOx emissions account for 55% of NOx, while motor vehicles are responsible for 44%. This data contrasts significantly from the national average where NOx primarily comes from motor vehicles (49%), and industrial, commercial, residential, and utilities account for 46% of NOx emissions.

NOx and ozone have several adverse effects on society. The primary concerns surrounding NOx emissions are health concerns (asthma & respiratory). In particular, diesel emissions containing NOx and particulates trigger pre-existing respiratory conditions. Ozone also affects lung tissue sufficiently to reduce lung function, contributing to particle inhalation, which occurs “deeply into sensitive parts of the lungs.” These particles “worsen respiratory disease, such as emphysema and bronchitis, and aggravate existing heart disease.” Moreover, while ozone, in and of itself is not carcinogenic, it can aggravate existing health conditions and lower natural defenses. A recent Sonoma study stated that reducing the NOx emissions in the Houston Galveston region would prevent 45 statistical deaths per year.

Critics of national standards argue that the statistical associations used to determine NOx and ozone health effects are weak. However, the Supreme Court clarified in its decision in American Trucking Associations v. EPA that the Clean Air Act is not required to “prove the biological mechanism.” The court ruled that showing a statistical correlation is sufficient. In other words, the Clean Air Act requires the EPA to act with an adequate margin of safety. Causation is not a requirement and caution is the approach. In a ruling against the National Petrochemical and Refiners Association, the DC Court of Appeals stated that the EPA “must err on the side of caution” in deciding pollution levels. The EPA has the right to set “whatever level it deems necessary and sufficient to protect the public health with an adequate margin of safety, taking into account both the available evidence and the inevitable scientific uncertainties.”

Secondary NOx concerns include its contributions to acid rain, deterioration of water quality, and atmospheric visibility. NOx, when reacting with sulfur dioxide forms acid rain, which deteriorates cars, buildings, trees and historical monuments. Acid rain also makes lakes acidic, killing fish and harming water sources. This is turn deteriorates water quality and affects the ecological balance. Along with these effects, the more conspicuous problem is visibility. Particles in NOx block light transmissions that reduce visibility. The ozone haze tends to depreciate land values and decrease the quality of life. These concerns, although secondary to health issues, are also considered when drafting NOx reduction policies.

Currently, the regional State Implementation Plan (SIP) requires industries to lower their NOx emissions by 90%. Industries have lobbied the TNRCC heavily to reduce their NOx standard to an 80% reduction, with the condition that they would lower VOCs by 80% to meet the ozone standard. Industries offer this alternative as a more economically viable option to reduce ozone, and such a revision to the SIP is being considered. John Wilson, executive director of the Galveston-Houston Association for Smog Prevention (GHASP), disagrees with the industry position: “If the science was there to support this, we would have no issue with it . . .What they’re doing is setting policy and then trying to see if the science fits.” A serious problem is with ozone is how much VOCs need to be cut to reach the standard. Since VOCs have been underrepresented in the past, skeptics abound as to whether future monitoring and compliance will be realized. Industries can no longer blame vegetation for the ozone problem and are recognizing that they are the bulk of the problem. If industries can prove ozone reductions through their proposals, the SIP will be revised. If not, they must comply with the SIP as is.

In the Houston-Galveston region, NOx reductions are the key to removing ozone, even though VOC reductions will also help. Recent flyovers by the Texas Air Quality Study indicate that VOCs stemming from the industrial ship channel have been undercounted for years. The recent VOC data adds to mounting NOx evidence that the Houston ship channel is the greatest source of ozone in the area. On a statewide scale, it would take approximately 18 million automobiles to equal the emission output of the “twelve hundred plus grandfathered manufacturing-petrochemical plants in Texas.” In 1996, the Texas vehicle population was approximately 13,486,865 vehicles. Even if all the vehicles in Texas were removed, the state would not remove emissions equal to those emitted by industry, using 1996 numbers. The grandfather clauses, exceptions in the Clean Air Act allowing industries to ignore EPA regulations, are now defunct. As a result, industries, like those found in the ship channel, must now implement technologies to reduce their NOx and VOCs. Additionally, the ship channel must continually be dealt with because even if industries come into compliance in 2007, this will not entirely eliminate ship emissions. Large freight and oil ships must eventually comply with EPA ship regulations but international ship emissions will still create pollution problems.

The addition of new ozone and PM regulations complicates the region’s implementation plan. The State and the region do not want new regulations until the current rules are met. California and much of the Northeast have more stringent state regulations so they approve of the higher standards. These states feel that the new federal standards would level the playing field, placing all at an equal economic disadvantage. The Houston-Galveston region faces much steeper marginal costs due to upcoming compliance deadlines.

The Houston- Galveston region’s ozone problem is “severe,” as classified by the EPA. The region currently generates approximately 1284 tons per day and to come into compliance, they must reduce NOx by 750 tons per day to reach an attainment level of 289 tons per day. Approximately 0.5 % of NOx emissions in the region come from City of Houston sources, such as city vehicles, construction equipment, and stationary sources like boilers and pumps. Although this is only small percentage of total regional pollution, the City’s intent is to reduce these emissions significantly. The City’s source inventory emits an average of 1584.6 NOx tons per year. In 1999, Mayor Lee Brown, through Executive Order 145, ordered the creation of a city emissions reduction plan. This plan consists of NOx reduction targets for city sources, calling for a 75% NOx reduction, or a 1189 ton reduction to reach 395 tons per year. The emissions plan requires the City and its contractors to use the cleanest technologies available for city projects. In addition, all new vehicles purchased must be low emission vehicles (LEV) or alternate fuel vehicles. The City’s reduction plan has many other elements including: eliminating engine idling, instituting bus pass programs, providing car pool subsidies, and many more. The heart of the plan, however, is in retrofitting the diesel fleet and stationary engines. The Mayor believes that this will have the greatest impact, both in terms of NOx and PM reductions. Through the Emissions Reduction Plan, the City of Houston seeks to become a moral authority and a leader in clean air initiatives and technology usage in the region, the state, and the nation.

The City of Houston Emissions Reduction Plan

The City of Houston Emissions Reduction Plan has been viewed as a model for other municipalities. Mayor Lee Brown has stated that clean air is his number one public policy priority and he hopes to establish the high moral ground in the region by reducing city source emissions. By retrofitting their diesel powered vehicles and equipment, the City hopes to present an example to local construction companies. If the City can meet emissions requirements through technology, then local industries should have little excuse for non-compliance.

Funding city retrofit projects is a continual challenge. For this reason, the State, through Senate Bill 5, created several grant vehicles that could fund Houston fleet retrofits. One of these is the Texas Emission Reduction Plan (TERP). TERP funding is provided for cleaner on and off road engines, research and development. Recently, TERP awarded $501,000 to the City to retrofit 33 off-road construction vehicles. If viable technologies come forth, Senate Bill 5, if further funded by the Texas legislature, will provide additional resources for future retrofits of both public and private diesel-powered equipment.

The 2007 ozone deadline creates several difficulties for the Houston-Galveston eight- county region (TNRCC). The timing is not optimal but the state must maintain a SIP that meets ozone compliance. Currently there is an 87 ton per day NOx shortfall to come into ozone compliance. The area has until next year (2004) to find a way to comply through a mid course review. The State must submit its revisions to the SIP, incorporating new strategies and new technologies. The solution will not magically appear but by researching technologies and speeding up retrofits, the city can potentially add to the NOx tons-per-day reductions.

Industry and the State Implementation Plan

As is the case with pollution reduction strategies, the emissions requirements contained in the SIP come with a cost. Some oil refineries and power plants are concerned about the negative impacts on energy production, believing that future standards may create a disincentive to expand output. The 107th Congress validated this concern as they made it the primary question of their debate in 2001-2002. Petrochemical and Refinery Industries in the region feel that the region must be concerned about keeping their comparative advantages. In addition, the American Trucking Association disagrees with new EPA diesel engine rules that are associated with the SIP. Cummins, a significant diesel engine builder, is also concerned that the technology will not be available to reach the new standards. Despite industry opposition, the EPA insists that there is “overwhelming public support” for these new rules, according to the EPA.

Not all industries in the region are opposed to the State Implementation Plan and new EPA diesel rules. Many industries know they must face inevitable environmental rules and would rather know what specific costs they will face in the future. BP petrochemical plants has expressed that “synergies exist to reduce NOx consistent with new growth.” They do, however, feel that these reductions will only come if operations are efficient and technologies become available.

Some critics of EPA rules argue that government regulation and taxes stemming from NOx and ozone standards decrease quality of life and potentially increase mortality rates due to decreasing disposable incomes. Critics of environmental regulation posture that regulation increases taxes or places undue costs on society. Their link to higher mortality rates is harder to argue but cannot be entirely ignored. Taxes or regulation on businesses creates higher consumer prices and taxes on individuals decrease personal incomes. The people most affected by tax increases are those in lower economic classes, and they often cannot afford health care. Disposable income available for health care is shifted to needs like food, clothing, and shelter. Consequently, absent other variables, higher disposable incomes generate greater public health. The challenge is finding the right balance, or an optimal level of government regulation and taxation.

For the Houston-Galveston region to reach compliance for ozone, several costs must be taken into consideration. Since the EPA has set the rules, the area must comply, or else face more severe economic consequences. The urgency of complying with the SIP translates into real dollars. If the region fails to comply with SIP guidelines, the federal government will withhold federal highway funds. The region’s highway funding is close to $1 billion dollars with a “consistently applied multiplier of 4.” City bond ratings will also be affected by EPA’s decisions on the region’s clean air efforts. These costs of non-compliance will be distributed among the general Houston area population. Not complying with the standard could affect the regional economy indefinitely into the future. Therefore, it appears to be in the best interest of the individual consumer to comply with the EPA ozone standard.

Particulate matter (PM) means small particles suspended in the air. Particulates are not easily identified or classified since they are “exceptionally diverse” consisting of “salts, acids, metals, water, organic compounds, and soot-like material.” The EPA identifies these particulates by size, as either PM10 or PM2.5 (as in 10 or 2.5 microns). Particulate matter is not strictly human provoked, as particles come from volcanoes, dust, pollen, and chemical reactions in the atmosphere. Nevertheless, sulfur in fossil fuels is also a major cause of particulates. Due to this, many particulates come from diesel and gasoline combustion as well as power generation and other industrial processes. Another human source of particulates is generated by the movement of dust through construction activities. As is the case with other criteria pollutants, the EPA sets standards for particulates. The standard for PM10 emissions is 150 micrograms in a 24-hour period, averaged over a three-year period.

Some studies suggest that particulate matter can be detrimental to public health. Epidemiological studies state that PM is linked to such illnesses as asthma, chronic bronchitis, and decreased lung function. Some dangerous particulates lodge themselves deep within the recesses of the lungs causing severe problems. Particulates tend to “remain in the lungs and lymph nodes rather than [be] cleared efficiently from the body.” Those most at risk are the elderly, children, and people with lung and heart disease. These groups constitute forty per-cent of the population. The Clean Air Scientific Advisory Committee of EPA’s Scientific Advisory board has agreed with the EPA that PM is probable human carcinogen. Also adding to the concern, of the 38 epidemiological studies done between 1988 and 1996, most of them found a “significant association between . . . particles in the air and deaths from cardiac and respiratory problems.” Of particular concern are particulates emitted by diesel engines, which “spew out 100 times more sooty particles compared to gasoline engines.” The particulates in diesel engines are extremely toxic, including benzene, arsenic, dioxins, and formaldehyde. These toxics are widely recognized as carcinogenic and their association with cardiopulmonary mortality is increasingly evident.

The EPA currently regulates PM10 emissions but in 1997, the EPA set an additional PM2.5 standard. PM2.5 is extremely small and referred to as ‘fine particle’ pollutants. The source of these particles comes from airborne soot, power plants, and diesel engines. The new standard would limit PM2.5 concentration levels to 65 micrograms in a 24-hour period. These new PM2.5 standards are not yet enforced and state implementation plans for these pollutants are not required until 2008. This new standard would push PM non-attainment counties from 41 to 168. If the Houston-Galveston region maintains its current course, it is sure to be among these new areas of non-attainment.

These new standards have been challenged in court but The Supreme Court has generally upheld the EPA in their decision to implement a stricter standard. Despite opposition to the standards, the EPA has stated that many benefits will result from these new standards, including 1) the prevention of tens of thousands of premature deaths from heart and lung disease, 2) prevention of tens of thousands of hospital admissions and ER visits 3) millions saved from school and work absences and 4) greater visibility. While it is hard to argue with such benefits, critics feel that the EPA’s assumptions and actual studies are flawed, arguing that the studies referred to in the new standards have too many variables. Citizens for a Sound Economy, a Washington DC think tank and advocacy group, stated that the new rules are “too hasty a response” for current knowledge. Like in the case with NOx and ozone pollutants, there is no definite causal link to health problems stemming from particulates. However, the EPA feels that the statistical associations between PM2.5 levels and public health data are sufficient to set the new standards. The government’s position is that uncertainties do not justify inaction when public health is concerned. Future studies will attempt to determine whether the associations between particulates and health problems are consistent.

The more stringent PM2.5 standards and health effects are forcing the Houston-Galveston region to act now. Under the new standards, several counties in the region would certainly be in non-compliance, a challenge the City simply cannot afford. Under the City’s emissions reduction plan, Mayor Brown has asked for a 33% reduction in particulates from city sources. The Mayor’s specific strategy includes such elements as reducing overall city vehicle emissions, improving traffic flow, improving scientific understanding of particulates, and controlling construction site dust more effectively. The most important aspect of the Mayor’s plan is diesel engine retrofits. Although the 33% target is not easily reached, using technologies and low sulfur diesel fuels, it is attainable. The two city efforts that will make this possible are the Diesel Demonstration Project and ultra low sulfur diesel (ULSD). These two ventures could significantly reduce both NOx and particulates from diesel trucks, non-road construction equipment, and also stationary sources.

Since diesel engines are responsible for 15% of the nation’s particulates as well as 20% for NOx, much emphasis is given to diesel retrofitting technology. For this reason, the Diesel Demonstration Project is the heart of the Mayor’s Emissions Reduction Plan (Vic slides). The project consists of a contract with the University of Houston (UofH) to test technologies and retrofit diesel engines. The lab is located at the UofH to provide required testing independence. Its main objective is to seek technologies that will reduce vehicle and equipment NOx emissions by 75%. Initially the project is looking for reductions of 50% or greater in NOx and 25% or greater in PM. The testing uses the most advanced emissions testing equipment available and also relies on in-depth analysis from the chemical engineers at UofH. The contract between the City and the University of Houston has sought to take advantage the university’s academic expertise to reduce emissions. The advantage of the expertise and new lab equipment is that UofH will test vehicles in real load conditions and normal operations. Labs like the one proposed in the Diesel Demonstration Project exist solely in Canada, West Virginia, and San Antonio. Each of these projects is a non-profit or private operation with high testing fees. The Diesel Demonstration Project is the “first program of it kind undertaken by a major municipality.”

The Diesel Demonstration Project was created to find the right technologies and implement them at the lowest cost. In April 2000, the City of Houston received $671,057 from CMAQ for the demonstration project for phase I. Phase I funds were used to test a limited number of vehicles and technologies. To fund phase II of the project will require the City of Houston to pay approximately $3.8 million dollars for UofH professional testing services. This phase will purchase the necessary testing equipment and pay for the start-up costs of the lab. The advantages of this initial capital expenditure are immense. By purchasing the lab equipment and paying for lab start-up costs, the city will receive testing and analysis from the university until 2007. This testing will come at no additional costs and avoids close to $18 million in testing costs with alternative testing labs (745 test vehicles * $4000 minimum test cost * 6 tests per vehicle = $17,880,000).

Only three labs exist in North America that can test diesel emission reductions technologies, and the University of Houston seeks to match their testing capabilities. The lab will test technologies that are both EPA approved and not approved. The lab intends

LITERATURE REVIEW in choice based lettings

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW in choice based lettings2.0       INTRODUCTION

In order to establish a link between this study and other related works, this chapter is devoted to a review of current literature that has relevance to the subject of this study. This study begins with the definition of “choice bases lettings” and various perspectives of other interested parties in the subject of choice based letting in the UK.

This chapter will consider the literature based on the key themes:

Introduction to choice based lettings

Definition of choice based lettings

Needs versus choice

Empowering customers

Choice for vulnerable household.

2.1. Choice based lettings history

Within the last the years, there has been an increase in the number of British landlords who have adopted the Choice base lettings (CBL) systems, due to the concern about unfair, bureaucratic allocation of social housing . The research published in January 2001 by the then Department for Environment, Transport and the Regions (DETR) found that nine out of ten authorities used a points based system for allocating “mainstream vacancies” with provision for “high priority categories,” such as decants and victims of racial harassment, to be accorded “overwhelming priority.” The research found that wholly “date order” systems, under which applicants are made offers according to the size/type of dwelling they need and when they put their names on the register, had, at that point, entirely disappeared.

The length of time that someone applying for housing might have to wait before receiving an offer of accommodation will depend on several factors, including: the pressure of demand for accommodation within the area; the size and type of dwelling that they desire/require; and the degree to which they are willing to be flexible over their ‘areas of choice’. Prior to the 2002 Act a common feature of social housing allocation policies was that applicants were given relatively little, if any, choice over the property offered to them. In some cases, particularly homeless households, applicants were penalised for refusing offers of accommodation deemed suitable for their needs by receiving no further offers, or by being suspended from the housing register. This practice was blamed for producing a high number of “failed” offers resulting in a loss of rental income and staff time. The DETR research found evidence over the previous decade of allocations systems becoming “more coercive”, i.e. imposing penalties against applicants who refused offers. (DETR, 2001)

Choice Based Lettings Scheme was designed to replace a points-based allocation system with a lettings service that home seekers could understand, and to provide more choice and involvement in selecting a new home. Moreover, this was mainly inspired by the Dutch ‘Delft model’(Kullberg, 1997, 2002; Westra, 2001). The Dutch delft model was first developed in the Netherlands in the late 1980s and adopted by most Dutch social landlords. Choice based lettings approach is different from the traditional allocations systems that is operated in Britain, that is choice based lettings (CBL) operate open advertising of vacancies and a major transfer of power and responsibility to the customer rather the way it was operated in the traditional allocation system.(Kulberg, 2002)

Current government guidelines in England suggested that choice based lettings should offer tenants the opportunity of deciding where they wish to live and when they want to move. The Government’s Housing Green Paper and other policy initiatives are encouraging social landlords to offer more ‘choice’ in lettings. The first district-wide scheme was launched in early 2000 in Harborough (a rural local authority area in the East Midlands). By 2003, nearly 80 local authorities in England claimed to be using a CBL approach (Brown, Lishman and Richardson, 2005). The Schemes are operating in a range of housing market situations including high and low demand as well as in urban and rural locations. The Office of the Deputy Prime Minister (ODPM) set targets in April 2002 that 25% of local authorities should operate such a system by the end of 2005 and 100% by 2010. In January 2005, the Government reaffirmed these targets as well as giving a commitment to operate a nationwide scheme by 2010 (ODPM, 2005). It also pledged to explore extending the scheme to the private rented sector and to low cost home ownership.

The Government’s policy aims were originally set out in its consultative Green Paper (DETR & DSS, 2000 p 12). This emphasised four objectives – offering choice, tackling social exclusion, helping to create sustainable communities, and encouraging the effective use and management of social housing. Each scheme has set its own priorities based on the views of local stakeholders and the nature of the local housing market. Allocations and lettings is one of the key tasks for social housing organisations. In 2002/03, local authorities and housing associations in England let 432,000 properties. ‘How these are let and to whom they are let to, therefore, have been of fundamental concern.

The Housing Act, 1996, (as amended by the Homelessness Act, 2002) together with additional advice in the form of, for example, a Code of Guidance suggested that, each local authority should publish an allocation scheme that must give reasonable preference to certain groups in housing need e.g. households with a particular need for accommodation on medical or welfare grounds. It also asserted that local authorities and housing associations must balance need and customer choice. These focus on need and can be traced back to the Cullingworth Report which suggested that, need and fairness should be central to allocations policies (Central Housing Advisory Committee, 1969). It contributed to a shift towards points-based systems that became dominant by the 1990s. (DCLG, 2007).

Brown, et al (2000) found that over 85% used a points-based system. The research also point out that, two-thirds of respondents in early 2000 did not intend to offer greater choice in the future. This was partly because organisations cited a range of examples of incremental policy changes that already contributed to relatively greater customer choice particularly preference for geographical areas, non-penalisation for declining reasonable offers and fast-tracking process for letting low demand properties. But, nearly 60% of respondents were undertaking or intended to start within twelve months and to do a fundamental review of their allocations policies and procedures. The reasons for reconsidering lettings systems centred primarily on changing patterns of housing need (44%), creating sustainable communities (27%) and improving organisational performance e.g. reducing voids and related periods (14%). (Brown, et al 2000).

By mid 2003, over 20% local authorities self-assessed themselves as operating the scheme. This covered just over 30% of the local authority stock in England i.e. approximately 750,000 dwellings, and approximately 10% of the housing association stock i.e. 150,000 – 200,000 properties. The Government wishes, firstly, to see each local authority area having a comprehensive and integrated scheme, and secondly the adoption of a sub-regional and regional approaches with a view to moving towards a national scheme by the end of the decade (Brown, et al, 2005).

According to statistics 80 per cent of local authorities in England participated in Choice-Based Lettings (CBL) on 1 April 2010, an increase from 61 per cent on 1 April 2009 Local authority landlords in England made 155,800 lettings during 2009/10, increasing from 151,700 during 2008/09. This follows a general decline from 354,000 in 1999/00 ( statistic 2010)

2. 2. What is Choice-Based Lettings?

CBL schemes were introduced in England through the Homelessness Act 2002. CBL replaces the traditional way of allocating housing where housing officers seek to match applicants with priority on the waiting list to available vacancies. Instead, CBL allows applicants for social housing (and existing tenants seeking a move) to apply for available vacancies which are advertised widely. Applicants can see the full range of available properties and can bid for any home to which they are matched. The successful bidder is the one with the highest priority under the scheme. The Government Green Paper commented that local authorities had considerable scope under existing legislation to adopt ‘customer choice-based lettings systems’ (DETR and DSS, 2000). The Homelessness Act, 2002, and the associated code of guidance emphasised a more general principle which states that“allocation policies for social housing should provide choice wherever possible while continuing to meet housing need this is the best way to ensure sustainable tenancies and build settled and stable communities.” (ODPM, 2002a, paragraph 5.3.)

More so, the ODPM published some advice to clarify its position on the target that was set out in 2002, that schemes should meet each of the seven principles as part of an incorporated CLB system that covers all of the social stock in an area and any initiative that does not offer broader customers advice on housing options are not right. These principles are as follows-

Initiatives taken by the customers: this is an initiative taken by the customers Whereby, an opportunity to apply for a property rather than being offered a property by the housing officer.

Social market information: customers must be provided with detailed information about what properties are available and who can apply, that popularity of particular type and location of property, and indicates their chances of making a successful application.

Property & neighbourhood features: the information provided must gives more detail about property features such as central heating, energy efficiency, schools, garden etc., and offer ‘real choice’ as in the private, owner-occupied sector.

System for vulnerable households & priority: support for vulnerable group is set into priority card or a banding system based on ‘levels of need’ are used to protect vulnerable people and ensure that people in most urgent need can be supported. This should also lead to improved housing opportunities for vulnerable

Labelling & selection criteria: simple and clear eligibility conditions are applied for customers wishing to become a home seeker on the regular housing. Once on the list a simple and easy to understand system operates for establishing priority for being offered a property.

Communication: the quality of information between landlord ands and home seekers is central to system. The adoption of ‘good practices’ in the use of advertising channels include the use of regular mail-outs, telephone and personal response to customer, use of information technology and web sites and the establishment of property shops (similar to estate agents)

Advice on housing options: customers are given vital advice on housing options that

available to them. (ODPM, 2002)

Brown, et al (2005) asserted that, the traditional schemes can be altered so that applicants who refuse offers are not penalised that is, the abandonment of ‘limited offer policies’. This shows that it is necessary to avoid the false dichotomy between CBL and traditional allocation system of suggesting that the former provides choice and the latter provides no choice. Similarly it is important to dismiss a further related myth that CBL does not take account of need while traditional allocation systems it focus on need. ( Brown, et al 2000)

As Cowan and Marsh (2004) in their review of two legal cases pointed out that, the Court of Appeal has generated a number of questions about the implementation of CBL within the existing legal framework. Basically, the primary legislation remains focussed on local authorities taking account of relative need, while the CBL advice centres on pushing forward a customer choice agenda. As the Government has frequently pointed out in its guidance, it is up to individual local authorities to satisfy themselves that they are m The legal framework, nevertheless, remains unclear. The Government has published guidance but its status is advisory. The primary legislation such as the Housing Act, 1996, as amended by the Homelessness Act, 2002 emphasises the broader principle of choice and that this must be balanced with taking account of need. and the government set out that:

•People should have as much opportunity as possible for their views to be

taken into account when they are seeking a new home.

•Choice should be available both to new applicants and to existing tenants wishing to move. To limit void periods, people should be able to choose properties before they have become empty wherever possible.

•Choice should be free. There should be no penalty for those who do not want a property on offer (although the time allowed for choice may need to be limited in certain situations).

•Choice should be as wide as possible. Local authorities and registered social landlords should consider the scope for pooling their property and making it available to people from outside their own local area. Vacancies in areas of lower demand should be available to people in areas of higher demand, although priority might continue to be given to people who have a strong local connection with an area or a pressing need to move there. The flexibility to allow greater priority to local people would enable authorities in areas of high demand (including small village communities with a limited supply of affordable housing) to avoid any additional pressure being placed on their stock.

•Simple and accessible systems. People should be able to apply for lettings and transfers easily and know to whom they should turn for help.

•Choice should be well informed. People should understand what housing is available and what their chances are of getting it. Housing authorities (in conjunction with social services authorities where necessary) should give additional advice and assistance to those who might otherwise have difficulty finding or applying for housing suited to their needs.

•Choice for homeless people. A choice of settled accommodation is as important for homeless people as it is for those in urgent need on the waiting list, although choice may have to be more limited for homeless people in certain circumstances.

•Systems should be sensitive to local needs. Under Best Value, and Tenant Participation Compacts, local people and existing tenants should be consulted about local policies. Local lettings policies that restrict individual choice need to be well justified.12 eeting statutory requirements. Although this enables schemes to be developed to reflect local circumstances and avoids an over-prescriptive focus by the Government, it does not sit easily with the targets set by the ODPM or the advisory requirement that local authorities should adopt CBL. (Cowan and Marsh 2006)

Although, Marsh et al (2007), stressed that landlords are still in charge of how the process

take place that is, they still influence the whole outcome of the system in that, they set the

rules that must be followed Partly in an attempt to recover legitimacy among consumers.

Choice Based Lettings (CBL) systems usually allocate with the persuasion that there is ‘limited offers’ of properties. They always say that they are not building more properties and that they are going to make use of the stock at hand. These rules are usually incorporated within traditional allocations systems too. (Marshal et al, 2007)

In May 2006 the Audit Commission published Analysis of Choice in Local Public Services, a survey of authorities which was carried out in 2005 by the Commission found out that those authorities not offering CBL schemes tended to cite a shortage of stock and concerns about set-up and running costs. The Audit Commission analysed the potential costs and benefits of these schemes and concluded that Choice-based lettings bring a range of benefits that would not accrue under a traditional lettings system. There is better matching of supply to preferences, including a greater likelihood of letting previously hard-to-let properties. The greater transparency of the system means that it is seen as fairer. (Audit Commission 2006)

2.3 Need versus Choice

Choice-based lettings (CBL) schemes are designed to introduce an element of choice for applicant in need of council and housing association homes. Choice-based lettings allow people to applying for homes (including existing tenants who want a transfer) to bid for properties which become available on a points-based system.

The government stressed that, local authorities must consider whether they should frame their allocation scheme to give additional preference to those “ who fall within the reasonable preference categories and who have urgent needs” The examples given include those who have to move because they have an urgent medical reason or who are experiencing threats of violence ( ODPM, 2000). Brown et al (2003) also articulated that, “there is no national consensus on what constitutes ‘need’ and allocations policies reflects a combination of factors reflecting the state of the local housing market and local political considerations. This will partly be to do with the definition applied to qualitative concepts and that what constitutes “need” may vary between LA Authorities. (Brown, 2003)

Moreover, in enabling applicants to make an informed choice about their accommodation is at the heart of choice based lettings. This would include allowing applicants to make reasonable compromises: eg a disabled applicant bidding for a first floor flat provided there is a lift, or a family bidding for a property which does not have sufficient bedrooms where the landlord is prepared to extend the loft. However, it is important that authorities do not frame their allocation scheme so that self-assessment by applicants becomes a substitute for a proper assessment of comparative housing need. Rather allocation schemes must be framed so that authorities are able to put applicant in need, are given the appropriate priority for housing which meets their needs. (DCLG, 2008)

According to the Research carried out for Communities and Local Government longer impact of choice based lettings, they found out that tenants who were offered a choice of accommodation were more likely to be satisfied with their home and remain in that home for a longer period and are more likely to meet their tenancy obligations and maintain the property in good condition. (Pawson, et al 2006)

The government believes that allocation policies for social housing should allow applicants to be given more of a say and a greater choice over the accommodation which they are allocated, while continuing to ensure that the primary purpose of social housing is to meet housing need. This is the best way to ensure sustainable tenancies and to build settled viable and inclusive communities. (ODPM, 2005)

The Housing Green Paper (DETR, 2000a) supported ‘broad brush’ banding systems in place of often highly complex points systems, but the legal limits of such flexibility have subsequently been somewhat clarified by case law. Reinforcing the earlier Reilly and Mannix decision, “the Court of Appeal ruled in the Lambeth LBC v Lindsay [2002] EWCA Civ 1084B case that local authorities must take account of the number of ‘reasonable preference’ grounds that apply in any case”. ( Court of Appeal, 2002) Thus, any allocations scheme must have a clear mechanism for assessing cumulative need under two or more of these categories. This ruling can be interpreted as outlawing schemes that allow housing applicants to ‘trade off ’ availability against property size or type, where this results in their choosing a dwelling deemed ‘unsuitable or too small for their needs. (DETR, 2000a)

Forman, (2002); Cowan and Marsh, (2004) believes that, the Lindsay judgment is calling into question the legality of some CBL schemes that attempted ‘excessive simplification’ of applicant ranking policies previously dominated by bureaucratically defined ‘need’. In their research they also found that a number of the ODPM CBL pilot schemes had been reshaped to take account of the Lambeth case, but argued that uncertainty remained as to whether these modifications were, in all cases, sufficient to address the judgment’s implications. (Forman, 2002; Cowan and Marsh, 2004)

l2.4 Empowering the customer

Empowering consumers to choose their new homes is central in any choice-based lettings system. Yet in some areas like Harborough where there are shortages of social housing stock, that means choice will be highly constrained. This was the reality faced by the boroughs that operate Choice Based Lettings scheme. The scheme was established to enable a shift

for home seekers and social landlords, from point-hunting to home-hunting, dependency to empowerment, artificial boundaries to real housing markets, organisational to a customer focus.

Brown et al, (2000) argued that the empowerment of home-seekers inherent in the CBL approach represents a decisive break with the paternalist tradition in the area of housing practice (Brown et al, 2000). At the same time, it must be acknowledged that most CBL schemes retain some bureaucratic elements such as, when determining eligibility and priority of applicants on the basis of assessed need (Pawson, 2002; Mullins and Rowlands, 2004).

However, one of the aims and requirements of choice-based lettings is to readdress this imbalance through the principles of ‘market information’ and ‘property and neighbourhood details’. The CBLs pilots are using a wide range of approaches to improve the availability of information. Measures include using free newspapers that are distributed to all households in an area, mail outs to all households on the housing register, and the use of interactive websites. But, as important as the information medium, is the nature of the information. www.mertonhousingpolicy.gov.uk According to the HHS research which reveal that customers are not only requiring detailed information about advertised properties but they also want to find out about the quality of the nearby schools, the location of the nearest health centre and the availability of public transport. This has proved challenging to many of the pilots schemes as housing organisations have tend not to have ready access to this material. Although, the three surveys that was carried out in November 2000, found out that, satisfaction levels have been high and consistent. For example, over 80% of respondents in each of the surveys felt that sufficient information was provided on how the system operates, adequate information was provided on advertised properties and that it was straightforward to join HHS. Indeed, as it has already been pointed out, over 80% of respondents who could compare the previous and HHS systems in 2000 preferred the former allocation system to choice based letting system. (March 2002 and 2003)

2.5 Choice and vulnerable Adult

The need to provide support for vulnerable groups has been a key principle of CBL and the bidding guidance which was issued by the then DETR, which states that Local authorities should set out how they would provide support needs of people from vulnerable groups

and how they would make special arrangements to ensure that vulnerable, difficult or

excluded applicants would be assisted to negotiate the process.( DCLG 2000) However, a key issue that this raised, is the extent to which the participation of someone from a vulnerable group is the landlord’s responsibility and the extent to which it is reasonable for the applicant to do so.

The Social Exclusion Unit’s April 2000 consultative report, National Strategy for Neighbourhood Renewal, concluded that the way local authorities allocated social housing reinforced, and even caused, problems by concentrating the most vulnerable people in one place. It identified “imaginative use of lettings policies” as a way in which authorities could create more “mixed communities where problems reduce and a wide range of people want to live”. And made recommendations calling for the then forthcoming Housing Green Paper to incorporate more open access and more tenure and income diversification into the social housing stock. (The Social Exclusion Unit’s April 2000)

According to the evaluation that was Carried out among Vulnerable groups the evaluation found that the lack of support for vulnerable groups was an area of concern. The extent to which the principle of customer empowerment and meaningful choice for vulnerable people weather it has been effectively delivered was open to question. This was specifically addressed in the later longer term impacts study which also found that it was standard practice to maintain lists of applicants in need of special assistance; and to send ‘assisted list’to applicants vacancy adverting list by direct mail. In some instances such applicants were periodically contacted to notify them of ‘potentially suitable’ vacancies and offer to make proxy bids on their behalf as well as facilitating the effective role of advocates through briefing and outreach work with voluntary agencies, caring professionals and others to raise awareness of scheme rules and processes. (Piloting Choice Based Lettings: An evaluation)

Kullberg (2002) suggested that, it is essential to focus on vulnerable households to evaluate whether, for example, socially excluded groups are empowered through the system, the extent to which information is made available in appropriate ways, and most importantly if vulnerable groups feel satisfied with the new lettings approach. It is particularly important to investigate this issue as some of the Dutch evaluation of choice-based lettings has pointed out that disadvantaged groups appear, at best, to fare no better than under traditional allocation systems. ( Kullberg 2002). Likewise, Bacon and Brown, (2001) and Holmes, (2002). Although this raises issues over whether it is valid to draw comparisons, especially as Dutch welfare and homelessness legislation is rather different from that in Britain (Barker, et al 1998), it nevertheless poses important challenges.

Bochel and Hawtin (2008) have argued that, there is a need to change from an agency to a user perspective (which is what CBL purports to do). One of the biggest impacts in this area is the implementation of the new supporting people regime, from April 2003. The core objective is to support independence and user involvement, which fits in with the objectives of choice-based lettings and the principle of empowerment. ( Bochel and Hawtin,2008)

Summary

However, we can say that the development of choice-based lettings can usefully be analysed as part of the decision-making process involving the balance between meeting ‘need’ and ‘choice’ in the allocations process. The evidence from a number of the early CBLs schemes is that households support this radical step change in that the system is felt to be transparent and fairer as well as most importantly enabling greater choice to be exercised. Nevertheless, as has been pointed out by a number of academicians and researchers, this initiative does not address wider structural problems in the social housing market. Choice based lettings (CBLs) is, therefore, a reform to the way in which social housing is allocated rather than a fundamental tool in rethinking the role of social housing. However, the focus of this literature has been on meeting needs and allowing people to make choice, vulnerable households and CBLs. In particular, the emphasis has been on whether and how this new system of lettings meets their ‘needs’, as there have been concerns that the nature of this type of approach might reinforce inequalities through the allocations system. Using evidence drawn from the early experiences of CBLs schemes.

The next chapter will deal with the research methods and methodology used in carrying out all the research work for this study.

Time Management Practices for a Registered Nurse

Time Management Practices for a Registered Nurse

Student’s Name;

Institution Affiliation;

Course Name and Code;

Professor’s Name;

Date;

Time Management Practices for a Registered Nurse

Nursing is a demanding, intense, and focused career requiring effective time management to manage tasks properly, reduce personal stress, enhance quality care, and achieve desired patient and organizational outcomes (Zhang et al., 2021). Despite the importance of effective time management among nurses, managing time can be challenging for nurses due to their busy schedules throughout the workday. As such, nursing staff may adopt various strategies to help with effective time management.

One of the time management practices that a candidate can initiate to become a successful Registered Nurse (RN) is prioritization. Nurses play many roles; hence, they must prioritize what should be done first. Since there are certain duties, such as drug administration, that must be performed, an individual preparing to become a RN should prepare a priority list of the things that must be done first to ensure that all critical duties are performed.

A candidate seeking to become a RN can also implement routinization to help with time management. Routinization entails repeating what a nurse does in their routine in a systematic process so that consistency assists with time management. Research reveals that developing a consistent routine improves time management among nurses by turning essential tasks into habits and eliminating unnecessary planning (Goldsby et al., 2020). The candidate can make a list of routine tasks and arrange each task based on the time required and prioritization of each item. Implementation of a step-by-step procedure for habitual duties will help save time.

Also, starting cognitive stacking may help a candidate who wishes to become a RN with time management. Cognitive stacking involves a nurse planning the day before shift starts (Jennings, 2021). Usually, cognitive stacking assists nurses in priority setting and time management.

Reference

Goldsby, E., Goldsby, M., Neck, C. B., & Neck, C. P. (2020). Under pressure: Time management, self-leadership, and the nurse manager. Administrative Sciences, 10(3), 38.

Jennings, B. M. (2021). Workflow, turbulence, and cognitive complexity. In Nurses contributions to quality health outcomes (pp. 85-107). Springer, Cham.

Zhang, F., Liu, J., An, M., & Gu, H. (2021). The effect of time management training on time management and anxiety among nursing undergraduates. Psychology, health & medicine, 26(9), 1073–1078. https://doi.org/10.1080/13548506.2020.1778751

This paper gives a critical coverage of how work teams, group behavior and managing organizational behavior relate to each ot

Name

Lecturer

Course

Date

Interdependence

This paper gives a critical coverage of how work teams, group behavior and managing organizational behavior relate to each other within an organization. Any formal organization involves different types of workers who are categorized into various departments depending on their education, profession and level of experience. Such a bureaucratic stature gives room for hierarchical order in which the senior most workers in each department are given a mandate to head their junior counterparts. This kind of interaction can help in managing workers as cooperative teams. At the same time, it can help to influence the behavior of the work force. Therefore, it is important for such an organization to come up with measures to coherently manage their behaviors.

The coming together of different people within an organization to work as a team can greatly influence their behavior. This may be due the kind of formal and informal interactions which they may have in the course of their duty. Similarly it may result from the formation of unions in which one can learn to adopt the character traits of the others. Therefore, it is upon the top management to come up wit appropriate strategies to manage these behaviors. It should ensure that all sorts of employees are accommodated without any form of discrimination (Poile, C., 2010).

Being a team player is paramount in the success of any organization. There is no organization which can develop if its stakeholders are autonomously operating independent of one another. It is a very significant phenomenon which determines the success of an organization. Naturally, man is a social animal. Hence, it is incumbent upon the management and individual employees to learn how they can cooperate together and promote the spirit of interpersonal dependence. This implies that these concepts are directly dependent on each other. The concept of interdependence is very important in the promotion of unity. If workers can learn to work in a cooperative manner, they can be in a harmonious environment which will help them to do their jobs well. If this happens, none of them will be acting without considering the interest of others. As a result, there will be understanding which will help the organization to improve the quality of services (Poile, C., 2010). Otherwise, individuals operating in seclusion in a totally independent way will not recognize the presence and contributions of others. As a result, it will be very hard for them to know if they are going astray. This is because they have nobody to guide them.

The management should always strive to promote team play within the organization. The understanding of the concept of interdependence can help the management to understand how the diverse departments within their association rely on the performance of others. Pooled interdependence is the poorest since, in this type, each organizational department or business unit performs entirely separate functions. Departments do not interrelate and do not openly rely on each other. That means that failure of one department could lead to the failure of the whole process. Chronological interdependence happens when one entity in the total course creates an output essential for the performance by the next department. Demand for coordination is greater than in pooled interdependence. Reciprocal interdependence is alike to chronological interdependence in that the yield of one sector becomes the resource of another, with the count of being recurring (Poile, 2010).

Focused group behavior and team play can lead to high productivity in organizations especially if workers are behaving well. In managing organizational behavior, interdependence gives an upper hand as it is much easier when individuals are reliant and mutual to each other than when everyone works on their own (Poile, 2010). If people work in unity, it will be easier for them to carry out periodical assessments to evaluate the extent to which the objectives of the organization have been accomplished. Being a team player should be encouraged at all times because it brings tolerance within the organization. If all the stakeholders in an organization can speak with one voice, it will be certain that they can achieve a lot. In this case, everyone will be working for the sake of promoting the growth and success of the organization.

Conclusively, the paper would like to agree with the fact that interpersonal dependence is a paramount concept of management. There is evidently a very big relationship between work teams, group behavior and managing organizational behavior. Each of these is directly dependent on each other and can assist in uniting all the stakeholders to speak with one voice at all times. This will give the organization a good image to the public as it expands its operations.

Works Cited

Poile, C. (2010) Asymmetric Dependence and Its Effect on Helping Behavior in Work Groups. Waterloo, Ont.: University of Waterloo.

Some of the worlds most compelling relationships have their roots in classical mythology

Mythology

Some of the world’s most compelling relationships have their roots in classical mythology. Many different religions have stories or ideals that have similarities to the relationships seen in ancient Greek mythology. From the interaction of mortals and gods we see how different writers viewed religion, family, and society. More specifically we see how the gods influence the way of life of a mortal. In Homer’s Odyssey there are many instances where the gods help mortals through their struggles. However, at the same time, there are situations when gods use their power to all but destroy the lives of the mortals who have displeased them. One of the most intriguing relationships between god and mortal is that of Athena and Odysseus. There are many times when Athena gives Odysseus the helping hand needed to succeed in his ventures to return to Ithaca. The roles that the gods play in the Homeric world compared with Euripides and Sophocles have great similarities as well as differences.

Looking at how Athena seems to take care of Odysseus, it seems that the gods, perhaps only Athena, tend to take a liking to mortals occasionally. You could draw the conclusion that Athena seems to like Odysseus’ family. She shows almost as much interest in Telemachos as she does Odysseus. “Likening herself to Mentor in form and in voice: “Telemachos, already your well-greaved companions are seated at the oars awaiting your urging. Let us go, so that we may not long delay from the journey.”

(Book II, pg 26, lines 401-404) In this passage Athena has taken the form of Mentor, a good companion of Odysseus, and has instructed Telemachos “to go in a ship onto the murky sea to learn of the return of my father who is gone so long.” (Book II, pg 23, lines 262-263) Athena then says, “…hereafter you will not be a coward or senseless. If there is really instilled in you the good might of your father and you are as he was to achieve both word and deed, then the journey will not be fruitless or unachieved.” (Book II, pg 23, Lines 270-273) The significance of these lines is that Athena is telling Telemachos, in the form of Mentor, that he will be protected and will indeed find information concerning his father on this voyage. In Book VII, Odysseus walked through the Phaeacians; however they did not perceive him. “She shed a divine fog about him, with kind thoughts in her heart.”(Book VII, pg 89, lines 41-42) The Phaeacians do not take kindly to one coming from somewhere else. Athena, knowing this, shed the fog around him so he could safely get to the house of King Alcinoos. Based on these two passages, Athena seems to have a special place in her godly heart for Odysseus and Telemachos. All throughout “The Odyssey”, Athena acts as the balancing force for Odysseus. She counteracts the situations that Poseidon puts Odysseus in. For the entire book the relationship between Odysseus and Athena, and Telemachos and Athena is constant. It never really changes in any shape or form. She sometimes takes a different form (i.e. Mentor), but generally they know it is Athena. The relationship between Athena, Odysseus, and Telemachos is like that of a mentor or guide. She provides them with information to help them through their troubled times. She also uses her divine powers to give them a leg up on the situations that are trying to hold them back.

Another relationship that is important to look at is quite different than that of Athena and Odysseus. At the end of Book VII, Odysseus’ men slaughter the cattle of The Sun God, Apollo. They were specifically told not to touch his cattle. Apollo is extremely angry about the disrespect shown to him. Zeus helps to destroy Odysseus’ ship and all his men. “I shall smite their swift ship soon with a gleaming bolt into small pieces, and burn it in the middle of the wine-faced ocean.” (Book VII, pg 172, lines 387-388) It is important to note that in this situation, Zeus is acting on the behalf of Apollo. Sometimes Zeus is thought of as an objective figure. Clearly this is not the case in this situation. He understands that Odysseus’ men have disrespected a god, and they should have to pay for it. The relationship between Zeus and Odysseus is not necessarily as horrible as it appears in this instance. Zeus has said that he actually admires Odysseus for his perseverance.

In Sophocles’ “Oedipus the King” the relationship that Apollo has with the people of Thebes is not a bad one. It may appear as though he dislikes the city or the people, but he knows the truth about what is going on. We must first look at the city of Thebes. The city is on a downward spiral so to speak. Apollo brings to light the murder of Laius. “Apollo commands us now- he could not be clearer, “Pay the killers back-whoever is responsible.” (Lines 120-123) Apollo knows that Oedipus killed him. He says that the city will not be cleansed of its “miastor” until they catch the murderer of Laius. Apollo is seen in this Sophoclean play as a healer. Not only does he have the ability to heal Thebes from its downfall, he wants to help the people of the city.

When you directly compare the role that Apollo plays in “The Odyssey” with his role in “Oedipus the King” we see two different sides to The Sun God. Homer writes him as an angry disrespected god that wants nothing but vengeance for the theft of his Hyperion Cattle. He cares nothing for the stupid mistakes of the mortal men in Odysseus’ crew. They did not show him proper respect so they must be punished (killed) for it. In “Oedipus the King” Apollo is the god of Thebes. People sacrifice to him and worship him. He is referred to by Sophocles as the healer. He will set the town straight once they get rid of the pollution. The pollution that Apollo refers to is the murderer of King Laius. Apollo is referred to as a nice, people loving god. For the people of Thebes, Apollo is a forgiving and healing god that wants to help his city. This is a constant relationship throughout the rest of this story. The difference in how Apollo is portrayed by Homer and Sophocles shows how the writers, as well as the people, adapt the gods to fit the needs of their societies and way of life.

In Euripides’ “Medea”, the relationship between The Sun God, Hyperion, and Medea is evil. Medea completes her quest of revenge over Jason. She has killed her children and caused him extreme grief. Hyperion provides Medea with an escape vessel to flea from Corinth. The chorus says that gods work in strange ways that often are not revealed to mere mortals. Sometimes they cause events to happen that just don’t seem right. In this particular story, the gods seem to be on the side of Medea. Her husband divorced her to raise his standings in society. The gods did not seem to see this as honorable or noble. This seems to be the reason that they allowed Medea to follow through with her extreme plan for revenge.

The interaction of the divine and mortal varies from the works of Homer, Sophocles, and Euripides. Homer displays the relationship between Athena and Odysseus as one where she helps him through his struggles because of his true natured heart. In Sophocles, Apollo is known as the healer. He is described as a good god that cares about the people of Thebes. This is almost the opposite of the role that he plays in “The Odyssey”. Homer describes him as vengeful god. He wanted Odysseus and his men to pay for taking his cattle. When we see The Sun God in “Medea” he plays a role that is deceitful and mysterious. He gives Medea the means by which she escapes Corinth. Each prolific writer has their own way to show the differences in how the gods interact with mortals. Though the gods are similar in each text, the relationships they hold with mortals vary and change to fit each story.

Bibliography:

Throughout the Bible, Moses has been portrayed as the deliverer, leader, lawgiver, and prophet of Israel.

Moses

Throughout the Bible, Moses has been portrayed as the deliverer, leader, lawgiver, and prophet of Israel. He is the Hebrew prophet who delivered the Israelites from Egyptian slavery and was their leader and lawgiver during their years of wandering in the wilderness. The name in Hebrew is Mosheh, meaning drawn out, but the original meaning is derived from the Egyptian language meaning child or son. The Egyptian translation reflects that Pharaoh’s daughter simply named him “child” when Moses was found. Moses belonged to the tribe of Levi, and was the son of Amram by his wife Jochebed. The other members of the family were Aaron and Miriam, his elder brother and sister.

The life of Moses is divided into three equal portions of forty years each, consisting of his life in Egypt, exile in Arabia, and government of Israel. Moses was a leader so inspired by God that he was able to build a nation from a race of oppressed and weary slaves. In the covenant ceremony at Mount Sinai, where the Ten Commandments were given, he founded the religious community known as Israel. As the interpreter of these covenant laws, he was the organizer of the community’s religious and civil traditions. His story is told in the Old Testament, in the books of Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. He was a child of the captive Hebrews, but one whom the Lord would use to deliver Israel from her oppressors.

Moses was born about 1520 B.C. In Egypt took place his birth, adoption, and the avenging of his countrymen. At the time of Moses’ birth the order commanding the slaying of all male children was in force, (Exodus 1:10,16), but his mother was by some means able to conceal him and hid him away for three months. When disguise was no longer possible she placed him in a small basket of papyrus, possibly from an Egyptian belief that the plant is a protection from crocodiles. She placed him among the reeds of the Nile and left his sister to watch the result. The daughter of Pharaoh came to the river to bathe, saw the basket, and had it brought to her. It was opened, and the cry of the child moved the princess to compassion. She insisted to raise it as her own (Exodus 2:1-9). At the same time the Lord determined that Moses should be taught in his earliest years by his own mother. This meant that he was founded in the faith of the Lord even though he was to be raised as an Egyptian. The king¡¯s daughter adopted the child, and for many years Moses was considered as an Egyptian (Exodus 2:10).

In the Pentateuch this period is a blank, but in the New Testament he is represented as “educated in all the learning of the Egyptians” and as “a man of power in words and deeds” (Acts 7:22). The discovery of the tablets of el-Amarna shows how extensive were the knowledge and use of writing throughout the East in the time of Moses and that the young prince could write, most likely hieroglyphics, Akkad. Cuneiform, and in alphabetic cuneiform such as Ugaritic.

Seeing an Israelite being beaten by an Egyptian, and thinking that they were alone, Moses killed the Egyptian and buried the corpse in the sand. The next day he tried to act as peacemaker between two quarrelling Hebrews, but his services were refused and he became aware that his act of the past day was known. It became clear to him that safety was to be found only in departure from Egypt (Exodus 2:11-15).

Moses¡¯ exile took place in the middle years of his life, bringing him close to his return to Egypt as a prophet of God. Moses fled, about 1480 B.C into Midian, near the peninsula of Sinai, and rested himself by a well, where he helped some young women with their sheep. Because of this, they returned to their home, and when they told their father, Jethro, he had Moses called in, and Moses approved to live with him, later taking his daughter Zipporah as his wife (Exodus 2:16-21; 3:1).

During his years as a shepherd, Moses became familiar with the wilderness of the Sinai Peninsula, learning much about survival in the desert. He also learned patience and much about leading sheep. All of these skills prepared him to be the shepherd of the Israelites in later years when he led them out of Egypt and through the Wilderness of Sinai.

In the isolation of this shepherd¡¯s life, Moses received his call as a prophet. The scene of this event is in the valley of Shoeib. Upon a mountain was the thorn tree of the desert, spreading out its tangled branches, solid with white thorns, over the rocky ground. The angel of the Lord appeared to Moses in a flame of fire in the midst of the bush, the dry branches of which would naturally have burned in a moment, but that remained still in tact. The revelation was made to Moses of the eternal self-existence of the one God and of his mission to deliver his own people. The Lord assured Moses that he would be with him, and that by God’s presence, he would be able to lead the people out.

Two signs proved to him that he should go on this divine mission, the staff that turned into a serpent, and the hand of Moses made leprous cleansed. If the people should not believe him a third was promised. The third was that the waters of the Nile would be turned into blood. He then returned to the home of his father-in-law and received permission to visit his brethren. God appeared to him and assured him of the death of all those in Egypt who sought his life. Moses then set out upon his journey with his wife and sons. On the way Moses, threatened with death by Jehovah, was spared upon the circumcision of his son. Then after he received a token of divine favor in the arrival of Aaron, who met him at the mountain of God. Aaron went with him to Egypt, and communicated to the people of Israel the words of Jehovah.

Moses’ difficulties were now all removed by the assurances of God but since he was still unwilling to undertake the mission, Aaron was allowed to be his spokesman (Exodus 3:2-4:17). Soon after his return, Moses, with Aaron¡¯s help, stirred the Hebrews to revolt and demanded of Pharaoh, “Let My people go, that they may hold a feast to me in the wilderness” (Exodus 5:1). Pharaoh rejected the demand of this unknown God of whom Moses and Aaron spoke. In Exodus Pharaoh states, “Who is the Lord, that I should obey His voice to let Israel go? I do not know the Lord, nor will I let Israel go” (Exodus 5:2). He showed his contempt of this God of the Hebrews by increasing the oppression of the slaves, and as a result, the people grumbled against Moses. Just because of that Moses did not end his mission. He warned Pharaoh of the consequences that would fall on his kingdom if he should refuse to let the people of Israel go. Ten terrible plagues were visited upon the land of Egypt (Exodus 7:14-12:30), the tenth plague being the worst and most horrifying.

The ultimate test of God’s power to set the people free was the slaying of the firstborn of all Egypt, on the night of the Passover feast of Israel (Exodus 11:1-12:30). That night Moses began to lead the slaves to freedom, was when God killed the firstborn of Egypt and spared the firstborn of Israel through the sprinkling of the blood of the Passover lamb. Under divine direction he did not lead the people by the nearest way to the Promised Land. After the Hebrews left, Pharaoh’s forces chased them to the Red Sea, threatening to destroy them before they could cross. A pillar of cloud and fire stood between the Israelites and the Egyptians, protecting the Israelites until they could escape. When Moses stretched his hand over the sea, the waters were divided and the Israelites passed to the other side. When the Egyptians attempted to follow, Moses again stretched his hand over the sea, and the waters closed over the Egyptian army (Exodus 14:19-31).

From the Red Sea Moses led Israel through Marah, where the bitter waters were sweetened (Exodus 15: 23), to Elim, where there were twelve springs of water and seventy palm trees (15:27), to the wilderness of Sin, where the people desired bread and were supplied with quail and manna (Exodus 16). Moses also led them to Rephidim, where the rock of Horeb gave forth water (Exodus 17:1-7), where the hands of Moses, upheld by Aaron and Hur, inspired the Israelites with courage, so that they defeated the Amalekites (Exodus 17:8-16).

Arriving at Sinai, Moses responded to the call of Jehovah and, going up into the mountain of God, received the message to the people to prepare for divine communications from God (Exodus 19:1-13). He led the people to the foot of the mountain on the third day, where he received the Ten Commandments (Exodus 19:14-20:17). He then conducted the ceremony of ratifying the covenant (Exodus 24:1-8), reading all the “words of the Lord” (Exodus 24:3). In Exodus 32, the Bible gives us a dramatic description of the righteous fury of Moses at the sin of Israel in the worship of the golden calf, which led him to destroy the tablets of stone. The glory of Jehovah was revealed to him, and the tablets of the law were renewed (Exodus 34:1-4). A covenant was made with Israel (Exodus 34:10-27), and after a second stay of forty days upon the mountain Moses returned to the people. Moses then controlled the creation of the Tabernacle and its preparation for worship.

For forty years the care and burden of the Israelites had been upon the mind and heart of Moses. The people were camped in Moab, awaiting the command to pass over the Jordan into the land of promise. Moses had sinned at Meribah in not sanctifying Jehovah in the eyes of the people (Numbers 20:12) and had so given up the privilege of entering Canaan. At the command of God he blessed the people and then ascended Mt. Nebo, a peak of Pisgah, which gave a view of the land promised to Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. After this favor had been granted him Moses died and was buried by Jehovah. The place of his burial is stated by Deuteronomy saying “in the valley in the land of Moab, opposite Beth-peor,” in an unknown grave (34:1-6) around 1400 B.C.

Moses found it peculiar to himself to be the founder and representative of his people. The Hebrew people had been in slavery in Egypt for some 400 years. This was in as what God’s words were to Abraham that his descendants would be in a foreign land in affliction for 400 years (Genesis 15:13). At the end of this time, God began to set his people free from their bondage by bringing Moses to birth.

So little is known of the private life of Moses that his personal character can scarcely be separated from the part that he bore in public affairs. It is the work he wrought for Israel and for mankind, which fixes his place among the great ones of earth. The life I have just sketched as the life of the leader of Israel is also the life of the author, the lawgiver, and the prophet.

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So many similarities flow through man’s interpretation of the unknown and the spiritual and it seems that all cultures and ti

Monothesim

So many similarities flow through man’s interpretation of the unknown and the spiritual and it seems that all cultures and times have had the need to have something in their lives other then the material world that we can see, smell, taste and touch. Many today follow the belief in the One God. This seems to be driven by the notion that a supreme god is needed for religion which is driven by the hope for some form of salvation. The God of religion is the unspeakably great Lord on whom man depends, in whom he recognizes the source of his happiness and perfection; He is the righteous Judge, rewarding good and punishing evil; the loving and merciful Father, whose ear is ever open to the prayers of his needy and penitent children. Such a conception of God can be readily grasped by simple, non philosophic minds, by children, by the uneducated peasant, by the converted savage. Even with all their religious crudities and superstitions, such low-grade savages as the Pygmies of the Northern Congo, the Australians, and the natives of the Andaman Islands entertain very noble conceptions of the Supreme Deity. Primitive man was capable of monotheistic belief, even without the aid of Divine revelation, contrary to some religious beliefs. Among the more educated there was support for the belief that many deities were in existence at some level lower than the one supreme deity. Some were even capable of worshiping one god while recognizing the existence of other deities.

Along with polytheism, monothiesm is one of the best known theistic systems. Monotheism is founded upon the idea that there is only one God, typically regarded as the creator of all reality. This god is believed to be totally self-sufficient and without any dependency upon any other being. Other alleged gods might be claimed to be merely aspects of the supreme god – this argument is more commonly found when the transition to monotheism is recent and the older gods need to be explained away. More often, other alleged gods are simply denied any reality at all, or perhaps claimed to be demons tempting people away from the True Faith. This exclusivity has resulted in less religious tolerance and freedom in traditionally monotheistic cultures. The origin of monotheism is unclear.

The first recorded monotheistic system arose in Egypt during the rule of Akhenaton, but it did not long survive his death. Some suggest that Moses, if he existed, brought monotheism to the ancient Hebrews, but it is possible that he was still henotheistic or monolatrous. The earliest Egyptian civilization believed in a single supreme god, who had no name but was described as the source of light the creator of all. He brought fourth rules or natural laws and in their diagrammatic literature these were personified in what we see as the gods and goddesses. Briefly around 1350 BC flourished the worship at Armana in Egypt of Aten/Aton as the one and only manifestation of god, in the near east Zoroaster saw the revelation of one supreme being in the eternal flame around 600 BC and some hundred year later in the Middle East appeared the historical writings from the descendants of Abraham, and out of whose customs grew Judaism, Christianity and Islam.

The form of monotheism which is traditionally most common in the West and which is too often confused with theism in general is the belief in a personal god which emphasizes that this god is a conscious mind that is immanent in nature, humanity and the values which it has created. This god is both independent of and distinct from the created universe and also presently active in the created universe. Because this form of monotheism dominates so strongly in the West, it is not uncommon to find people who simply give it the label “theism,” ignoring all the other forms as being types of theism.

When Abraham was held back from sacrificing Isaac by God around 2000 BC, his God which became the God of the Israelites was seen as but one of many. From the days of Abraham to the days of Moses and beyond, a lot of local gods still existed. When we talk about Akhenaton having but one god, to many He too was but one of many. Even Allah was originally one of many a local god. The God of Abraham and Israel was their God, their chief god, who proved himself over and over to be greater than the gods of other lands and peoples. Even the first of the Ten commandments recognizes ‘other gods’. However the other gods were but the local interpretation of god under a local name.

But what is this “god” thing that is the object of theism? A god is being, usually thought of as a person or having personal qualities, who plays a role in mythology and religion. This object of belief typically possesses supernatural or extraordinary powers far in excess of those that can be attributed to normal, mortal humans. The development of the idea of a “god” can be clearly observed in the development of religion in the Indian subcontinent. Originally, the Indian “gods” were exemplary , strong, and victorious rulers who managed to accomplish a great deal more than their contemporaries. Later they were elevated to godhood and worshiped as supernatural deities. Similar processes can be seen even in the later periods of the Roman Empire, when emperors were declared gods after their death as a matter of routine (although it was not routine that coherent religions were maintained around them for very long). Indeed, the elevation of powerful warriors or kings to the status of godhood may have been one of the earliest ways belief in gods was developed. Another aspect in the development of theism would have been the observation of powerful forces of nature. They all appear to be beyond the influence of humans, but they would also have appeared to be animate, just like humans and animals. Thus would have developed the belief that unseen, powerful spirits are behind the events in life: animism. Parallel with the belief in unseen spirits is the desire to influence those spirits – much the way powerful humans are influenced. Early religion therefore developed means by which humans make offerings to the spirits the same as offerings were made to tribal leaders. They followed whatever rules and orders the spirits might be thought to issue the same as orders from tribal leaders were followed From this sprung the tendency towards organized religion. Monotheism was a gradual process and it was not until around 500 BC that the idea that the God of Israel was the one and only God and always was. Christianity, at first a Jewish sect, confused the issue by developing the idea of a Trinity which took 400 years to define, and even then as a mystery. This Trinity seems to have roots in the three names of the Egyptian God and their fondness for triads. Allah was but the chief amongst a group of Arab gods until they recognized that he was the same God as the God of the Israelites and of the Christians. Just as the Jews had eventually got rid of all other gods so did the Moslems. Perhaps it was a lack of understanding as still exists. One region’s understanding may not be different to another’s but they all struggled to understand the indefinable unknown and eternal with greater or lesser success. As philosophy is always subject to the frailties of man it can often go astray. Some claim divine revelation but it just may be that it is logical. The truth of creation or the law of nature must eventually reveal itself simply because it is the truth. The great question posed by Pontius Pilot ‘What is truth’ is one of the eternal quandaries and at the beginning of all in our earliest civilization lies the guidance of truth from which all else flows.

Bibliography:

Bibliography

1.Sheed, Frank .J. Theology and Sanity ,Oxford/New York; Oxford University Press. 2000

2.Miller. Charles .d. The origins of Biblical Monotheism: Israel’s Polytheistic background and the Ugaritic texts, Oxford/New York. Oxford University Press. 2001

Machiavellis Advice to America

Machiavelli’s Advice to America

Leaders of the world are not just a regular breed of individuals. In present days, the United States citizens elect representatives through a very precautious procedure; people know if the wrong person were to get into office they could cause a downfall of a nation. Not all of Machiavelli’s principles of a leader are strongly practiced in today’s world, yet when revised many compare incredibly to the way the American government is governed.

In The Qualities of the Prince, Machiavelli discusses a number of traits that he believes a prince or ruler of his time must have to be safe, successful, and loved by his people. Machiavelli believed in exploring both sides of an issue, “the art of war and the art of life, liberality and stinginess, cruelty and clemency, the fox and the lion” (36). Most of his instances have something to do with war, he is very repetitive in many of his believed traits and he stands firm with them by giving many examples. By reading The Qualities of a Prince it is very easy to assume that Machiavelli was brilliant in his thoughts during his time, this leaves one to ponder the thought of how successful these traits would be in modern American politics.

Americans elect leaders with certain distinct qualities, Machiavelli’s beliefs on leaders characteristics don’t totally relate to our expectations. He does mention that he doesn’t recommend tyranny, meaning one ruler have all the power or use it too his advantage. In American government there are no tyrants, all the power is distributed into branches where decisions are made on agreement on that of which will help the American people the most. The majority of Machivelli’s characteristics of a good leader would not get a man elected in the United States, in his time that wasn’t applicable because you were born a leader. Machiavelli wrote of it to be good to be generous but said that a reputation of it will harm you, stating that nothing will use itself up quicker than generosity (41). The candidates of today present themselves on generosity, explaining what they have done in the past and what they plan to do in the future. Machiavelli also suggests that a morally good person wouldn’t last long in a high office. Presently you can’t be elected unless you have morals, the President of the United States of America and his family our examples for the whole nation to look at, if they appeared to have no morals what could someone expect from our nation as a whole?

Machiavelli was right on task when talking of things a leader must do to maintain office, he believed in a lot of principles of which leaders today use. He states that a leader must desire to be merciful, not cruel. This relates to your people looking up to you, not running away from you, Machiavelli also says “a prince must not worry about reproach of cruelty when it is a matter of keeping his subjects united and loyal” (43). In America today this can be related to the death penalty, some Americans see it as cruel but in reality it is necessary to maintain a fear in those that wish to do others harm.

Reading The Qualities of a Prince you will find that most of Machiavelli’s distinct qualities that mentioned concern war. Machiavelli writes that a leader must never be idle in peaceful times, meaning the leader should make their power known to all, also stating “in peacetime he must train himself more than in time of war; this can be done in two ways; one by action, the other by the mind” (38). This quality is very unique and true, used by not only the United States but also by any structured government. American leaders show this by having a strong militia, with bases spread throughout the United States, appointing experienced commanders with the mentality and experience to lead and train new soldiers.

Preparation for all obstacles is the center point for most of Machiavelli’s qualities, he stresses intensely on the fact of keeping your peoples faith while doing so, “for a prince must have two fears: one, internal, concerning his subjects; the other external, concerning foreign powers” (48). But this faith is not just given to a leader, it is earned through experience “a prince who does not understand military matters cannot be esteemed by his own soldiers, nor can he trust them” (Machiavelli, 38). America is known to be the elite government power on earth at this time because our past leaders have been well educated and ready for any circumstance. Our government has had its share of dramatic blows from other nations or ethnic groups but it has successfully bounced back up not showing weakness, giving truth to Machiavelli, “have a mind ready to turn itself according to the way the winds of fortune” (47).

Although most of the traits that Machivelli holds to be true involving warfare and preparation our still true today, one is outdated but easily revised. Machiavelli believed that in his time it was much safer to be feared than loved. This is still true in today’s world except Machiavelli was referring to the people of the prince’s kingdom; American leaders relate this to countries. Fear in a society accomplishes nothing and will cause an unsuccessful economy in present times, in the past it was essential to maintain a small sum of fear to not be overran.

American politicians have somewhat mirrored a number of the qualities mentioned in Machiavelli’s essay. A unique trait that is possessed by many of Americans great leaders of the present and especially the past is war experience. Leaders take pride in our military and as Machiavelli explained, they know people would much rather follow a person that would fight next to them than one that wouldn’t. Although American leaders have not and would not recently stand toe to toe with other soldiers while they were in office, most volunteered and when needed fought courageously, gaining a tremendous amount of knowledge for future occurrences. Exemplifying courage and wit tremendously is a leader of the past, John Fitzgerald Kennedy. Fighting in World War Two, Kennedy was a lieutenant on a PT 109. One night aboard his ship at sea, it was rammed by a Japanese destroyer causing enough damage to sink the ship. Kennedy dragged a wounded sailor for four hours to land, earning him the Navy and Marine Corps medal for Gallantry in Action. Anyone willing to fight for America would respect and be willing to follow and listen to a man with a background of Kennedy for these reasons, exemplifying one of Machiavelli’s qualities.

Leadership is a tremendous responsibility; although this is obtained by few in America the outcome and decisions made effect millions. There are many guidelines that a leader must follow to be successful, the studies one might go thru to do so would be tremendously improved in reading Machiavelli’s The Qualities of a Prince.

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Machiavelli and More are each often described as humanists

Machiavelli

Machiavelli and More are each often described as “humanists.” Does it seem reasonable to you to group them together as part of the same “movement” or intellectual trend? Explain why or why not.

A most complete definition of humanism describes it as, “an intellectual movement that stressed enjoyment of all aspects of life, and especially of the ideas and values of pre-Christian civilizations, such as those of Greece and Rome; the interest in individualism, including stress on man as an end in himself, rather than as merely one cog in the vast machine of the Church.” Thus far in this course we have studied two Renaissance figures that are typically described as humanists: Niccolo Machiavelli via The Prince, and Sir Thomas More in Utopia. In The Prince, Machiavelli uses the major corpus of the work to convey his observations concerning principalities. In addition to analyzing the types of difficulties that a prince might encounter, he describes how a prince comes to power and retains his position. In More’s Utopia, we find a treatise on ethics and human nature along with, above all else, a condemnation of pride, disguised in the painting of the portrait of a perfect world. Most important to the ideals of humanism, we see through both works that Renaissance man has evolved greatly from how his Medieval counterpart was viewed as a miniscule, analogous piece of the all powerful church. It is the individualism of this new character on the world’s stage, the Renaissance man, which creates the perfect setting for a return to Roman-Athenian ideals such as self-interest, worldly possessions, and a much greater concern for life than the afterlife. By staunchly defending these ideals, Niccolo Machiavelli emerges as a true humanist, while in abhorring them Sir Thomas More appears only a social critic.

In Book I of Utopia, More struggles with the question of how he, a good man by the moral standards of the day, can serve a wicked king. The dialogue, which takes place between More and Raphael Hythloday, could easily be mistaken for a dialogue between More and his own conscience. According to More, this world traveler would be of immeasurable assistance in any prince’s court due to the vast knowledge that he has gained, just as More believed he himself would be of importance to the court of the King of England. Unfortunately for More, it is soon shown that the opposite is true. For,

in a court made up of those who envy all

others and admire only themselves, if a

man should propose something that he had

… observed in his travels, the other

councillors would fear that their whole

reputation for wisdom was in danger, and

that they would be regarded as plain

More attempts to defend his actions by claiming that it is better to try to work for change within a corrupt government than do nothing at all. This is what he has done by accepting a position from King Henry. Hythloday clearly refutes this attempt at rationalization in his argument with the English counselor-at-law regarding the death penalty for thievery. “While [they] strive to terrify thieves with excessive cruelty, [they] really incite them to kill innocent men.” If a system does not work on face, it is not probable that internal adjustment would solve its deficiencies. Instead, it is most likely necessary that an entirely new system be put into place. Unfortunately, as More discovers, there is a stumbling block that prevents mans progress in physical ventures, and even in mental propositions: pride, especially manifested via the need for individual success. “Pride is the infernal serpent that steals into the hearts of men, thwarting and holding them back from choosing the better way of life.”

In Book II, through the narration of a journey to the land of Utopia by Hythloday, More depicts what he believes to be the perfect society created through constructs that completely eliminate pride. The society that he creates is in every way the antithesis of Renaissance Europe. The communism of the Utopians is placed in stark contrast to the individualism that we see developing in the Renaissance man. The end result being that the material possessions that had just become the rage among the Renaissance jet set became Utopian trash. The gold and silver wealth of Europeans was used by Utopians in their “chamber pots and stools … metals for the chains and fetters of their bondmen … Thus they [held] gold and silver up to scorn in every way.” The religion of the Utopians is not evangelical in nature. Citizens are allowed to believe whatever they want, so long as they do not try to force others to believe the same. Compare this to Sir Thomas’ England where he was beheaded for his failure to recite an oath that recognized his King as head of the church. More than anything, the Utopian government contrasts with those supported by Machiavelli in The Prince.

In portraying Machiavelli as humanist it is obvious to see how he fits the definition best. In fact, he best fits the definition because he demonstrates that which More detested, pride. Nothing represents that pride more than the prince’s quest for fame and glory, and “nothing brings a prince into greater respect than the undertaking of great enterprises and setting a glorious example.” The monarchy, which Machiavelli supports, is the converse of Utopia’s representative democracy. Also as our definition demands, the prince is the end in himself and he must obviously respect the empires of Rome and Greece that came before him or he would not be attempting to emulate them. The prince embodies individualism as compared to his subjects, the masses, in addition to the fact that he is to be feared. “It would be desirable to be both [feared and loved] but, since that is difficult, it is much safer to be feared than to be loved.” A prince must become an individual, meaning that he can stand on his own in battle, “able, through abundance of men or money, to build up an adequate army and take the field against anyone likely to attack them.” Thus, we see that Machiavelli’s Prince is the embodiment of all humanist dogma.

The feelings of More and Machiavelli towards the rebirth of the classical ideologies during the Renaissance were such obvious polar opposites that it allows us to easily determine which exemplifies the ideals of a humanist. Due to the fact that More was quite opposed to the rebirth of the ancient ideals that the Renaissance encompassed we cannot call him a humanist. And, despite the fact that Machiavelli was much more concerned with the creation of a strengthened unified Italy, and his own return from exile, than the mores of humanism, he did celebrate the resurgence of ancient culture, especially individualism. There is an important fact to realize, which could explain the inherent contrast between these two thinkers. The Renaissance that was experienced in Northern Europe, where More wrote, was quite different from that which affected Italy in that the Northern Renaissance was far more religious in its products. This was due in the most part to the fact that the area is removed from Rome and thus was not as disenchanted with the state of the papacy at the time. The conclusion drawn is that the extremely different views of these two thinkers were the results of two quite different Renaissance.

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