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Normative Ethics

In the short story, The German Refugee, the narrator and a German refugee, Oscar, develop a unique friendship. The narrator, a poor senior in college, tutors immigrants in the English language to make some extra money due to the poor economy after the Great Depression. His student Oscar is much like his other students, an educated refugee, however Oscar is quite a challenge for the tutor. Oscar came to America as a lecturer. However, “the thought of giving the lecture in English just about paralyzed him (Malamud 440).” Oscar had left his wife and was troubled with depression from his life changes. As they performed the English lessons, step by step a friendship emerged, and even though Oscar had given up on the lessons, the narrator still visited Oscar trying to help him right his lecture.

Eventually, Oscar began to confide in the young American, and told him he had once tried to commit suicide during his first week in America. The narrator shows kindness and compassion, still trying to help Oscar write and translate his lecture. However, they never get past the first page. Instead of writing the lecture on every visit, the two both sit in silence in the heat of his apartment. “It was sticky, hot July and the heat didn’t help at all (Malamud 442).” The narrator then decides to buy a second hand fan for Oscar. An action that however minute is the right action to perform. Although the fan only last a week, the narrator’s action of kindness is good, by three normative ethicist, David Hume, Immanuel Kant, and John Stewart Mills, this small action performed can be shown to be the right action.

The moral normative theory, Subjectivism, from Hume’s philosophy examines the moral pleasure the narrator receives by doing this action. Subjectivism states that an action is the right action for an agent if and only if the agent when performing this action gains moral pleasure from it, or as Hume would say, “An action, or sentiment or character, is virtuous or vicious; why? because its view causes a pleasure or uneasiness of a particular kind… The very feeling constitutes our praise or admiration (Hume 44).” To understand this normative status, the definition of moral pleasure must be described. Moral pleasure is not the same as mere pleasurable feelings. However, it is the feeling of morally wrong or morally right within each person. This is what makes subjectivism subjective, different for different people. Thus, an action is not necessarily wrong just because the action may seem morally wrong to some one else. Second in Subjectivism, Hume is concerned with actions, but the definition of the kind of actions is important. Hume does not mean all actions. He divides actions into three categories: actions that are morally right, actions that are morally wrong, and actions that are morally neutral. These divisions are also subjective to each individual, because each individual will evaluate each action differently. Lying in a particular instance may be morally neutral to one person. It may be morally wrong to another, and it may be morally right to yet another person.

To apply Hume’s Subjectivism to the short story, the action must be defined. For this normative theory and all the theories, the action is buying the second hand fan and giving it to Oscar. It is easily seen that this action brought moral pleasure to the narrator. He has done a simple selflishless act for the depressed immigrant. Thus by the definition of subjectivism, the action was the right action to have performed.

The second moral normative theory is the Categorical Imperative by the philosopher Kant. The categorical imperative has three formulations, but for determining whether the narrator performed the right action, I will use the first formulation. “Act only on that maxim whereby thou canst at the same time will that it should become a universal law (Kant 38).” In a more scientific wording, the first formulation of the categorical imperative states that an action is morally right if and only if the generalized maxim of the action could be willed to be a universal law of nature.

This definition requires many terms to be more clearly defined. First, the word maxim is “a subjective principle of volition” or in other words how an individual is going to act in a their situation (Kant 17). Maxims are usually stated; whenever I am tired, I shall sleep. However for the purpose of the Categorical Imperative, maxims must be generalized applying to all. So whenever I am tired, I shall sleep, becomes whenever anyone is tired, he or she shall sleep. The maxims are used by Kant to describe how an individual acts in their situation, and the generalized maxims are used show how all people should act in the situation. Next, the word imperative means a command. However, there are two types of imperatives. The hypothetical imperative like if you want an A on your paper, then work for hours writing it. Then, the categorical imperatives that state do something. The hypothetical is subjective, different for different people, and changes over time. For instance, not everyone has to work for hours to get an A, and over time maybe there will be no more grades. Categorical imperatives are necessary and universal. Categorical imperatives like keep your promises will always exist for all time making them necessary, and apply to everyone making them universal. Next, the concept of willing must be elaborated on. Willing something means to think of something in such a way that thinking it makes it the case, or thinking it brings that state of affairs about. In the categorical imperative the agent is willing the generalized maxim and there are two conditions that the maxim must have for the person to be able to will it. These to principles of willings are that they must be consistent (both internally consistent and with all other willings), and the willings must be rational (what a rational agent would will). Finally, the last statement in the first formulation of the Categorical Imperative, a universal law of nature is defined as a universal statement about how everything must be. For a universal law of nature to be true, it must meet the two conditions of willing.

Now that the Categorical Imperative has been completely defined it can be used to evaluate the action, buying a second hand fan for Oscar. The first a maxim must be formulated from the action. In this case the maxim is when ever the narrator feels the need to cheer up his friend Oscar and his apartment is very hot, he should buy a second hand fan for Oscar. Then, the maxim must be generalized. The generalized maxim is whenever anyone feels the need to cheer up his or her friend and his or her friend’s apartment is very hot, he or she should buy a second hand fan for his or her friend. This generalized maxim must then be willed, meeting the two conditions on willing. It is consistent, but to prove the maximums consistency, it is best to look at why it is not inconsistent. If it is inconsistent it contradicts with its self like if it had been whenever anyone is down I will make him or her feel worse about his or her self in order to realize it was not so bad before. It would be obviously inconsistent, but there is no obvious contradiction like such in the narrator’s maxim. The second part of consistency is that the willing must be consistent with all other willings. This maxim is consistent with all other willings because the narrator only wills to help not harm Oscar. Second, the maxim is rational for a rational agent would will. Giving a simple gift to his sad and hot friend to cheer him up has no irrational consequences and only benefits the nariator. So the action is the morally right action to perform by Kant’s first formulation of the Categorical Imperative, because the generalized maxim of the action can be willed to be a universal law of nature.

The last moral normative theory is Utilitarianism by John Stewart Mill. Utilitarianism is teleological moral normative theory because it deals with the amount of pleasure or pain that occurs after the action is performed. As Mill states, “Actions are right in portion as they tend to promote happiness; wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness (Mill, 7).” Utilitarianism in other words is that an action is morally right if and only if it maximizes utility. In Utilitarianism, Mill is mainly concerned with the amount of happiness, “By happiness is intended pleasure and the absence of pain; by unhappiness, pain and the privation of pleasures a consequence of an action (Mill 7).” By the amount of pleasure he means the total amount of pleasure of everyone that is effected by each action. He uses the term hedonic value of an action if the action is performed to describe the amount of pleasure that occurs from this action, and the term doloric value of an action if the action is performed to describe the amount of pain that occurs from this action. Hedonic values are represent by a positive number, and a negative number represents doloric values. The utility of an action is defined, as the total amount of pleasure an action would produce if performed plus the total amount of pain an action would produce if performed. With the utility, the person wants the maximized utility. In utilitarianism a person must consider all actions. Thus, there is always an alternative action. Action two, that is an alternative of action one, meaning action two is another act that the agent who could perform action one could perform at the same time as action one instead of action one. Basically, there is more than one action in utilitarianism and the person must choose the action that when the pleasure and pain is added together has the greatest numerical value.

For example the action of buying the second hand fan for Oscar can best be shown in this chart.?The hedonic value for buying the fan for Oscar is about a 45. “He sat in the breeze for hours each day until after a week, shortly after the Soviet-Nazi nonaggression pact was signed, the motor gave out.” Though the fan only lasted a week during this time the fan was used by Oscar, the narrator felt pleasure for unselfishly giving, and the hedonic value of pleasure for each person was about 20. However, that is not the only hedonic value for buying this fan. The person he bought it from gains some happiness with a value at 5. Though, with this action also comes a doloric value of -5, because the motor gave out after only a week. Oscar probably missed the fan when it was gone. So the total utility of this action is a positive 40. Although the narrator could of chosen another action. He could of chosen to do nothing. In this instance the hedonic value would be 0. Though th!

e doloric value might be -10 from the guilt the narrator may have felt knowing the heat Oscar had to endear. The total utility of the second action is negative 10. Utilitarianism requires that in order to determine the right action a person must calculate all possible actions. However for this paper, these two actions give a good example of utility and by these two examples, even though these are not all the possibilities that exists, then the narrator has performed the maximized utility,the right action.

The narrator has by all three normative theories performed a right action. By Hume’s subjectivism, the narrator performed the right action because it brought him moral pleasure. By Kant’s first formulation of the categorical imperative, the narrator performed the right action because it formed a willable generalized maxim for the Universal law of nature. Then finally by John Stewarts Mill’s Utilitarianism, the narrator performed the right action because it maximized the utility.

Bibliography:

Hume, David. Moral and Political Philosophy. Aiken Henry. New York: Hapner Press, 1948.

Kant, Immanuel. Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morals, Second ed. White beck, Lewis. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall, 1995.

Malamud, Bernard. The German Refugee. The Best American Short Stories, ed John Updike, Hajhtan: Mifflin Company, 1999.

Mill, John Stewart. Utilitarianism. Sher, George. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, 1979.

Nonverbal communication and language are different

Nonverbal Communication

Nonverbal communication and language are different. There has been some research claiming that humans used nonverbal communication before they developed a language. Nonverbal communication is the process of sending and receiving messages without using words by means of facial expressions, eye contact, gestures, postures, physical appearance, and tones of voice. The concept of nonverbal communication is complex. It is almost impossible to know exactly what it includes, but the majority of our talking is done without speaking.

No one can speak more than one word at a time, but nonverbal messages can be sent in multiple ways at the same time. The meaning of nonverbal messages differs between cultures (Morreale, Spitzberg, and Barge, Human Communication: Motivation, Knowledge, & Skills, 119), races, and sometimes gender (Burgoon and Saine, The Unspoken Dialogue: An Introduction to Nonverbal Communication, 130). Nonverbal and verbal communications sometimes contradict each other because people are sometimes unaware of the nonverbal messages that they send (Morreale, Spitzberg, and Barge, Human Communication: Motivation, Knowledge, & Skills, 119).

The movement of the body makes up a language, in which certain movements have specific meanings. Kinesics focuses on how people communicate through movement and posture, gestures, and the face and eyes (Morreale, Spitzberg, and Barge, Human Communication: Motivation, Knowledge, & Skills, 124). Kinesics refers to all types of body movement, except for touch, that may act as nonverbal communication. Body movement and posture are known as body language.

Gestures are large and small movements of the hands and arms that send messages. Gestures complement our speech, bridge our silences, send unspoken messages, or express our approval or disapproval (Lamb and Watson, Body Code: The Meaning in Movement, 1). Negative gestures like fidgeting lets others know that a speaker is nervous and has a lack of confidence. Speakers who don’t use any type of gesturing seem insecure and uncertain (Morreale, Spitzberg, and Barge, Human Communication: Motivation, Knowledge, & Skills, 125).

Sign language is any type of hand gesture that replaces specific words or numbers. It can range from a single hand gesture, such as a peace sign, to the language system of the deaf (Burgoon and Saine, The Unspoken Dialogue: An Introduction to Nonverbal Communication, 53). Sign language was developed in the sixteenth century when Geronimo Cardano said that deaf people could learn and understand sign communication. Sign language is used throughout the world, not only by deaf people, but also by people that want to interact with them.

Familiar hand gestures that we give specific meanings to may have different meanings for different people. For example, in the 1950s, Vice President Richard Nixon went on a tour of Latin America. When he stepped off his airplane he flashed the OK sign. The crowd booed him because in their culture, it meant, “Screw you” (Burgoon and Saine, The Unspoken Dialogue: An Introduction to Nonverbal Communication, 29-55).

Researchers have found differences of body language between gender and race. When men communicate power they often have an open body posture, using both the arms and legs. By comparison, women don’t expand as much. When women feel less powerful, they tend to lessen the amount of space their body takes up and tilt their head (Morreale, Spitzberg, and Barge, Human Communication: Motivation, Knowledge, & Skills, 124). Young blacks have developed movements that are quite different than whites. Kenneth Johnson, a researcher in ethnic studies at the University of California at Berkeley, has described distinctive manners of black youths. According to Kenneth Johnson:

“There is a style of black male walking behavior, called in street jargon the pimp strut, which functions as an attention-getting device and serves to exhibit one’s masculinity and state one’s racial pride, self-confidence, and control. The young Black males’ walk is different. First of all, it’s much slower—it’s more of a stroll. The head is sometimes elevated and casually tipped to the side. Only one arm swings at the side with the hand slightly cupped. The other arm hangs limply to the side or it is tucked in the pocket. The gait is slow, casual and rhythmic. The gait is almost like a walking dance, with all parts of the body moving in rhythmic harmony” (Burgoon and Saine, The Unspoken Dialogue: An

Introduction to Nonverbal Communication, 130).

Movements of the face that are used to send messages are known as facial expressions. “Facial expressions may be controlled or uncontrolled” (Moss and Tubbs, Interpersonal Communication, 53). Certain facial expressions may be voluntary and some may be involuntary. The human face is capable of displaying six basic emotions such as sadness, fear, surprise, disgust, anger, and happiness (Morreale, Spitzberg, and Barge, Human Communication: Motivation, Knowledge, & Skills, 126).

Eye contact is also an important part of kinesics. Gazing is the very core of the concept of eye contact when dealing with nonverbal communication. The duration of a gaze can have mixed effects. If the gaze is maintained for one hundred percent of the conversation, it will be more likely uncomfortable to both the speaker and the listener. On the other hand, if the gaze is maintained for about seventy percent of the time, the results are then positive. This maintains a positive, sincere, and more normal environment (Moss and Tubbs, Interpersonal Communication, 68).

There have been some research studies that indicate that white males tend to engage in more eye contact than black males. Also the research indicates that black men engage in the least amount of eye contact then interacting with a white male. When blacks use a particular roll of the eyes in talking with whites, Kenneth Johnson says, “The movement of the eyes communicates all or parts of the message. The main message is hostility” (Burgoon and Saine, The Unspoken Dialogue: An Introduction to Nonverbal Communication, 130).

Proxemics is the studies of how humans perceive, organize, and use space to communicate. Everything from how far you stand from students in line to how you arrange furniture in your bedroom all fit in this category. Humans have two kinds of needs, affiliated needs and privacy needs. Humans are very social creatures and at times we want to affiliate with others, but at other times, we need to have some privacy.

Selected individuals such as family and friends satisfy our affiliated needs. That is why we want contact with certain people rather than random individuals. Our need for privacy is really a need to control and to have the freedom to be alone. Proxemics includes territoriality and personal space.

Territoriality refers to claiming and defending a territory as one’s own. Territories are staked out as a means of protecting the self and providing privacy. Someone’s house, apartment, or room is their territory and they have the right to defend it against intruders. For example, many students pick out their own chair in a classroom and return to it for the rest of the course. Many housewives think of their kitchen as their territory and they will get mad if a child, husband, or even friends interfere.

There are different types of territories. They include public territory (places open to the public), interactional (social interaction), and home territory (any geographical place that someone regards as their home), and body territory (the human body and its surrounding space) (Burgoon and Saine, The Unspoken Dialogue: An Introduction to Nonverbal Communication, 92). All of these territories play a huge role in nonverbal communication. Personality, culture, and physical expressions are all derived from these territories of proxemics (Lamb and Watson, Body Code: The Meaning in Movement, 89).

Personal space refers to the space around a person’s body. Personal space differs from territoriality in that it is not a fixed space. This space increases and decreases according to the situation. It may be very large when a person is in a strange environment and may shrink to nothing in the presence of a loved one.

Haptics is the study of touch. According to Desmond Morris, “We are a touch-starved society.” This quotation emphasizes the reason why touch is considered to have such potential for communication. Humans need to touch and be touched. Contact is necessary as a means of communication between mother and child. Touch also plays a role in psychological development. Only through touching his or her own body and objects in the environment can help the child to begin to recognize him or her as separate from the rest of the environment. Children learn sizes, shapes, and textures through touching things. The way a child perceives things is dependent on haptic experiences. The self-explorations that children engage in also contribute to their own body images, to whether or not they are comfortable with their own bodies. The perceptions that children acquire are dependent on how others react to them.

Physical contact is also important to a child’s psychological sense of security and well-being. Touching seems to provide a source of reassurance and comfort. It helps to release negative feelings. The final importance of touch is social in nature. Physical contact appears to be necessary for the development of interpersonal relationships. Touch experiences can strongly influence a person’s ability to relate to others, to trust them, and to be sensitive to others needs. Psychiatrists have linked many marital problems to inadequate or inappropriate experiences in childhood. Violence and aggression may have the same cause.

A number of studies have indicated that serious biological, psychological, and sociological problems do result when humans are deprived of touch. Research has suggested that a number of children that are placed in orphanages develop serious health and behavior problems. Lack of physical contact in childhood has led to such problems as allergies, speech difficulties, and learning disabilities later in life.

Adults and adolescents need and want physical contact. At least in intimate relationships, touch is an important part of the communication between two people. Lack of touch is taken as a sign that something is wrong in the relationship. Desmond Morris claims that in our culture we turn to “licensed torchers” such as hair stylists, barbers, manicurists, and masseuses. Even if body contact is not the main reason for seeking such services, the body contact is a satisfying result. This need for touch is due to the high degree of isolation that our culture has created.

The increasing of urbanization has left people not knowing most of the people that we see in a day’s time. We do not know whom we can trust and so we avoid contact with each other. These feelings of isolation and uncertainty are brought on by stress from living in urban environments. Too many people, too much noise, too little room, and too much activity are causes of environmental stress (Burgoon and Saine, The Unspoken Dialogue: An Introduction to Nonverbal Communication, 69-70).

One way that people express themselves is through their physical appearance. Physical appearance, which includes our natural body features, dress, accessories, and cosmetics, is usually the first nonverbal code to have an impact on a relationship. It affects the visual, touch, and smell senses. These items convey a great deal of detailed information about someone’s lifestyles, personality, and values.

Americans today are obsessed with beauty. Physical attractiveness may be influential in determining whether a person is preferred. It may have a bearing on whether a person is able to persuade or manipulate others. Cosmetics and fashion are multimillion-dollar industries. People spend great sums of money for products, programs, and secrets to take off pounds or put them on, to get rid of wrinkles, to straighten or curly hair, to eliminate odors and create new ones and to hold in bulges. Women use bras and girdles, while some men use stiff collars and neckties to become beautiful or attractive people. Some men have hair transplants to cure baldness. Sometimes men and women have plastic surgery to alter their image.

The stereotypes of beauty are embedded in our culture. People’s obsession comes from television. Commercials and advertisements show models for what people should look like. Usually on television, the typical housewife or working man is attractive in some way.

Another important artifact that reflects on how good of an impression a person is given by someone is how he or she wears his or her hair. A person’s hairstyle depends on their personality. Hair has, at various times, been braided, curled, straightened, hardened, colored, cut, shaved off, or covered with a wig or weave, all in the name of beauty. Different cultures have different ways in which they maintain and style their hair. In some cultures, facial hair has been admired and taken as a sign of status (Moss and Tubbs, Interpersonal Communication, 78).

Like cosmetics and hair fashions, clothing and jewelry have played a significant role in beautification. There are a range of styles and materials that have been considered attractive. The importance of clothing is a central aspect of impression. Clothes seem to be important to first impressions. In one study, males and females were asked what things that they noticed first about a person. Females and males noticed clothes first, but for members of the opposite sex the face and figure were first.

Vocalics, also called paralanguage, is another form of nonverbal communication.

Vocalics includes the elements produced by the human voice, other than the words themselves. There are elements of the human voice that contribute to nonverbal communication such as intensity (volume), rate (the speed at which a person talks), and pitch (lowness and highness of the voice) (Morreale, Spitzberg, and Barge, Human Communication: Motivation, Knowledge, & Skills, 129). Everything from sniffs and sneezes to rapid speech and singing fall into this category. Silences and pauses in speech also fall into this category (Burgoon and Saine, The Unspoken Dialogue: An Introduction to Nonverbal Communication, 80).

Vocal cues carry important messages. They carry a variety of information, ranging from the speaker’s sex and ethnic background to personality. Vocal cues send messages of attraction and dislike and they can also reveal status and power (Burgoon and Saine, The Unspoken Dialogue: An Introduction to Nonverbal Communication, 84).

Vocal cues can distinguish emotions and also influence our thoughts about personality (Moss and Tubbs, Interpersonal Communication, 180). Several distinct emotions can be accurately identified solely on the basis of vocal cues. The rate of speech is very important in communication. A faster speed rate, as well as shorter comments and more frequent pauses, is linked to fear or anger. A slower speech rate can be linked to depression (Burgoon and Saine, The Unspoken Dialogue: An Introduction to Nonverbal Communication, 84).

In conclusion, nonverbal communication is often used more than verbal communication to show emotions and the relationship part of a message. People use verbal communication to express facts, opinions, ideas, whereas, nonverbal communication is used to express or show feelings (Morreale, Spitzberg, and Barge, Human Communication: Motivation, Knowledge, & Skills, 119).

There has been some research to show that there is some kind of difference between the nonverbal behaviors between blacks and whites and also between men and women (Burgoon and Saine, The Unspoken Dialogue: An Introduction to Nonverbal Communication, 130).

Nonverbal communication has many functions. It works in one or three ways: it replaces, reinforces, or contradicts a verbal message. A person can improve their use of nonverbal communication by being perceptive to context, audience, and feedback. The context includes the physical setting and the situation.

Touch is a significant aspect of nonverbal communication. It has also been concluded that there is a strong correlation between lack of physical pleasure and violence: the more pleasure, the less violence and vice versa. Cultures that display a lot of physical affection toward infants have a low incidence of theft, murder, rape, and physical punishments, while those that deny physical pleasure to infants generally have high rates of adult violence.

Physical appearance, which is also important in nonverbal communication, seems to be a large factor in determining how others judge personalities, sexuality, social status, and often happiness.

Bibliography:

Burgoon, Judee K. and Thomas Saine. The Unspoken Dialogue: An Introduction to

Nonverbal Communication. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1978.

Lamb, Warren and Elizabeth Watson. Body Code: The Meaning in Movement. Princeton,

NJ: Princeton Book Company, 1987.

Morreale, Sherwyn P., Brian H. Spitzberg, and J. Kevin Barge. Human Communication:

Motivation, Knowledge, & Skills. Belmont, CA: Thomson Learning, Inc., 2001.

Stephen, P. Atlas of Facial Expressions. New York, NY: Springer, 1987.

Moss, S. and S. L. Tubbs. Interpersonal Communication. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin,

1978.

The Comparing Betweem Venus Of Milos And Venus Of Sandro Botticelli

This essay will examine the parallel ideas behind the Venus de Milos and trhe birth of Venus by Sandro Botticelli. Venus de Milos is an ancient Greek statue, carved in marble 150 BCE and the Louvre Museum in Paris houses it. It is a depiction of the goddess Aphrodite. Though its features seem classical, it is a late Hellenistic work, created at a time when Greek culture as a whole was in decline. The painting the Birth of Venus is the work of the Italian artist Sandro Botticelli and it dates around 1482 ACE. The idea and ideal of Venus inspire the artists to create masterpieces. One can talk about idolatry-the worship of an image, the love with the classical ideal, as the power that inspire both Botticelli and the sculptor of Venus de Milos. the idea of venus maybe an allegory: venus may be the personification of human beauty and superiority over the nature. But who was Venus, or better, who was Aphrodite, as the goddess of love is called with her Greek name? Aphrodite, in Greek mythology, is the goddess of love and beauty and the counterpart of the Roman goddess Venus. In a Homeric legend, mentioned in the Iliad, she is said to be the daughter of Zeus and Dione, one of Zeus’s consorts. In the Theogony of Hesiod, she is described as having sprung from the foam of the sea, and etymologically her name may mean “foam-risen.” According to Homer, Aphrodite is the wife of Hephaestus, the lame and ugly god of fire. Her lovers include Ares, god of war, who in later mythology was represented as her husband. She was the rival of Persephone, queen of the underworld, for the love of the beautiful Greek youth Adonis. Perhaps the most famous legend about Aphrodite concerns the cause of the Trojan War. Eris, the personification of discord-the only goddess not invited to the wedding of King Peleus and the sea nymph Thetis-resentfully tossed into the banquet hall a golden apple on which were inscribed the words “for the fairest.” When Zeus refused to judge between Hera, Athena, and Aphrodite, the three goddesses who claimed the apple, they asked Paris, prince of Troy, to make the award. Each goddess offered Paris a bribe: Hera, that he would be a powerful ruler; Athena, that he would achieve great military fame; and Aphrodite, that he should have the fairest woman in the world. Paris declared Aphrodite the fairest and chose as his prize Helen of Troy, the wife of the Greek king Menelaus. Paris’s abduction of Helen led to the Trojan War. Probably of Near Eastern origin, Aphrodite was identified in early Greek religious belief with the Phoenician goddess Astarte and was known under a variety of cult titles, including Aphrodite Urania, queen of the heavens, and Aphrodite Pandemos, goddess of the whole people. Venus de Milo, which means Aphrodite of Milos, it was found on the Greek island of Milos in 1820. Although it is of a grandiose style that recalls the Classical Period, the Venus de Milo is from the late Hellenistic Age ( ). Beside it stood a herma (stone pillar) on which the arm of the goddess rested. On the base of the herma was inscribed the signature of an artist, Alexandros, or Agesandros, from Antioch on the Meander. By this signature the work can be dated from 150 BC to 100 BC. A hand holding an apple was also found on Milos, and this may have been a part of the figure. If so, Aphrodite was represented as the goddess of the “apple island” (Greek milo, “apple”). The original on which the artist based his work was probably an Aphrodite of the 4th century BC, which showed the goddess holding the shield of Ares with both hands. In the Milos statue, however, Aphrodite may have held her garment in her (now lost) right hand. The statue stands in a typical Greek “S” figure style, as many other statues from the classical world. The viewer can easily see the charm of Venus, both in the face and at the pose. Venus depicts the ideals of ancient Greece, which were anthropocentric, that means, humans are the center of the world. By the later, the Greeks may want to say that among all nature, the most beautiful thing is human nature, something that Sophocles also stated in one of his tragedies. Venus was the goddess of beauty, and perhaps for artist who sculpted the Venus de Milos, the goddess was the apotheosis of the beauty of nature. One must keep in mind that the ancient Greeks did not have omnipotent and omniscient gods. Their gods functioned as the humans did: they had sex, cheated and so on. The only deference between a human and a god was the fact that the god could not die. The statue of Venus de Milos may symbolize among other things the human willingness for eternal beauty and youth. The statue is half naked, but it should not be a surprise to the viewer. The Greeks did not consider nudity as a sin. In fact there was no word in their dictionary that could be parallel to our modern conceptions of sin. Human beauty, since it was the highest of all things, should be seen by many. The later belief can be derived from the fact that, many Greek statues, among them Venus de Milos, were nude. Venus de Milos may also symbolize the beauty of life. Death was not a big deal for the Greeks. That is why they did not like to mention deaths name. But life was a big deal, and Venus de Milos may be the personification of the beauty of life, which one can enjoy while she/he is young and beautiful. Sandro Botticelli in the 15th century was inspired by the same ideal, the beauty of human nature. His painting shows Venus coming out from the sea on a shell. The painting was painted in an era at which people start to cut themselves apart the doctrines of the church. During that time, which is referred as the renaissance, people looked back to the classical world for ideas to imitate so that their generation could be great as the Greco-Roman generation was. Venus is naked as well and she shines in light, as if she was the neoplatonic light of beauty shining to the cave of this ugly world. One can see, however, the goddess attempt in the painting to hide (maybe partially) her nudity. The later is due perhaps to the fact that Boticelli’s generation was not totally apart from the teachings of the church. Nevertheless, the fact is that the 15th century generations looked back to the past to find inspiration. The classical myths of Venus inspired the Italian painter, as well as the themes of beauty. The Venus of Botticelli stands in “S” figure style, or contraposto, as it is nowadays known. The same pattern of depiction was used in the Venus de Milos. Venus in the painting of the Italian artist is coming out from the sea. It is a story from the Greek mythology that was used by Botticelli. One may say that the depiction of Venus as a goddess coming out from the sea has an additional meaning. For the Greeks Venus was the goddess of love and beauty. Maybe Botticelli wanted allegorically to say that Venus in his painting is the symbol of the new (reborn one could better say) ideals that were rising. The new ideals were the ancient Greco-Roman ideal, that took away the strength of the church, which had been the highest institution through the Middle Ages. Botticelli worshiped Venus, an allegorical goddess, which was to bring change to the world. Venus is the new way of thinking, a way of thinking based of beauty and freedom of the individual, who can be nude if he/she wants. The sculptor of Venus de Milos worshiped his Venus as well: for Alexandros of Antioch, Venus stood for the superiority of human beauty and nature over the creation, which as idea that the generation of Botticelli stared to follow. The worship of Venus may be interpreted as the victory, the rising from the sea victory, of human logic over superstitious teaching and reasoning. The worshipers of Venus are worshipers of humanity, which centers the world, not around a spirit but on the human activity.

Bibliography:

The Burakumin Japanese Outcasts

The Burakumin: Japanese Outcasts

Racism and discrimination is a common, but not accepted, practice in most societies. The thing that makes the discrimination of the Japanese Burakumin so different is the fact that they are racially the same as all other Japanese. Discrimination of Burakumin has been going on for centuries.

In feudal Japan, there was a cast system that was formed. There was the emperor, the feudal lords, samurais, farmers, artisans, merchants and a group called hinin. Hinin usually had dirty jobs like cleaning toilets or leather craft. Beneath this group were the Burakumin. A portion of historians believe that early Burakumin were most likely native Japanese tribesmen that were defeated during warfare and forces into slavery. The modern Burakumin are descendents of gravediggers, executioners, and animal slaughterers and of people who had other “dirty” jobs. They are excluded from normal social activity because of Buddhist law, which states people who killed and ate meat were impure. Today, the Burakumin make up about 2.5% of Japan’s population.

Officially, law has done with the Burakumin class away. However, people are still discriminated against for being a descendent of this original class.

To this day, the segregation continues. This segregation led to the construction of numerous communities to house Burakumin. Most maps of Japan do not show these communities. The people who lived in these settlements were referred to as Hinin (non-people) or Burakumin. They were not allowed to converse with the rest of Japanese citizens. In fact, as recent as fifty years ago, Burakumin had to wear a leather patch so people would know they were Burakumin.

The Burakumin were not allowed to marry a regular Japanese citizen. It was strictly forbidden. The following is an example of what would happen to someone who married a Burakumin woman—“My parents said I could not have any relationship with them. I have two sons ages nine and eleven. My father met the first one once when he was a baby, and the second time a few months ago by accident at the hospital when we were visiting my grandmother” (Daily). The families only lived miles apart for ten years but never talked. Even after his wife died of cancer, his father still would not talk to him. The embarrassment of having Burakumin grandchildren was too much to handle. If one were to come into contact with a Burakumin, they would have to see a Buddhist priest to be cleansed of their impurity. Burakumin had no given surnames; instead they were given a number. Burakumin were not allowed to eat, drink, or smoke near a non-Burakumin. They also suffer from medical ailments more than the average Japanese citizen. This is due to bad medical care. Many Burakumins have low-paying jobs with no insurance. They suffer from tuberculosis and trachoma at a higher than average rate.

Japanese citizens would not even touch something that a Burakumin had touched. For instance, if someone known to be Burakumin tried to buy food the storekeeper would most likely wear gloves rather than touch the money given to him by a Burakumin. Another example of this discrimination is when a fire would start in a Burakumin ghetto; neighbors would discuss how the fire had a tremendous stench. Most likely, the Burakumin house fires would be the last to be put out. In present day Japan, Burakumin work with non-Burakumin and most workers do not know the Burakumin, but management does know. They have private investigators to track addresses of potential employees. If they are found to have Burakumin residences, they will either not be hired or start off 5%-10% less than non-Burakumin employees. Burakumin are seen as uneducated and dirty even though they are racially identical to non-Burakumin. “Only 10.6% of Burakumin were reported to be employed in enterprises of over 300 employees, well below the national average of 23.3%” (Somucho 20).

Most of Japan’s large companies have Burakumin files-a list that shows all of the Burakumin slums in their area. When companies renew applications for employment, they hire private investigators to look for Burakumin addresses. In turn, the Burakumin applicants are not called in for interviews. Most companies simply throw the application in the trash.

Kiryu is home to the largest Burakumin ghettos; it has about ninety of them. There, numerous Burakumin live outside of the slums and meticulous methods are used to disguise their Burakumin backgrounds. Since Japanese firms keep records of Burakumin residences, the Burakumin will move frequently so they get lost in the system. They hope that their background will be hidden.

For over one hundred years, sporadic uprisings have occurred. The first of these started in the early 1870’s. It was very unorganized and only involved a few local people. In 1903 another movement took place. Instead of uprising, they organized a group, somewhat of a lobbyist group. This was for the most part unsuccessful. There have always been some politicians that support the Burakumin. Some of them come from Burakumin backgrounds and were able to break the cycle of poverty and illiteracy. By 1920, political movements for the Burakumin had developed into a few ideological groups, partly because of the spread of Marxism. Some of the groups were communist, anarchists and revisionists.

The progression of Japanese military power in the 1940’s pushed these groups into obscurity fearing repercussions from the government. In 1947 numerous Burakumin were elected to the House of Representatives.

After the war, the United States helped the Burakumin with land reforms. They helped out into place a program that allowed the Burakumin to purchase land they had farmed for years. Although Americans helped them for the most part, the Burakumin are anti-American. The Burakumin Liberation League constantly lobbies the government in hopes of upgrading their Burakumin status. They also hope the government will do something about the Burakumin ghettos. But for the most part, Buddhist monks and other religious leaders are the only ones that are dedicated to help their plight.

The Japanese government had invented its own version of racism. Instead of based on racial differences, it is based on impurity. Japan’s version of racism is deeply rooted in tradition and the fear of being polluted or contaminated. One of the worst fears for a parent is for his or her son or daughter to marry a Burakumin. Racism is also prevalent against the indigenous people of Japan, the Ainu.

Many Japanese like to believe that Burakumin do not exist. They deny knowing anything about them or say that discrimination had ended about fifty years ago. Discussing Burakumin is unacceptable. Dictionaries do not even have the definition for Burakumin and the media never talks about them, even when the Burakumin Liberation League (BLL) is holding a rally. The BLL is a major group that tries to influence the government for reforms. Think of it as a lobbyist group. But the government has tried to covertly pass anti-Burakumin rights laws. These anti-Burakumin laws are unconstitutional. S. Uesigi who is an independent researcher states, “Minister Murayama, following the advice of his ministry of justice, arguing that it’s ratification would conflict with the constitutionally guaranteed freedoms of speech and publication” (Uesugi 6). The Asia Pacific Human Rights League is a new organization for the liberation of the Burakumin. “It aspires to provide information to the Asian public about racism. It aims to be the precursor of some kind of formal human rights organization that will operate within the Asian Pacific to promote human rights” (Hurights 9). For the most part the position of the Burakumin has gotten much better over the years. The rise of political organizations such as the Burakumin Liberation League has helped the Burakumin to break the cycle of poverty, But there is still along way to go.

Officially, law has done with the Burakumin class away. However, people are still discriminated against for being a descendent of this original class.

Bibliography:

Daily Telegraph. 24 May 1994.

Hurights Osaka. “What Will Hurights Osaka Do?”. Hurights Osaka Newsletter. Osaka.

(1995): 1.

Somucho. Outline of the Results of the 1993 Surveys to Assess Conditions in the Dowa

Areas. Tokyo. 1995.

Uesugi, S. “Thirty Years after the Deliberative Council Report and Buraku Liberation”. Human

Rights 85 (1995): 2-7.

The book of James

The question of the importance of religion has been one that has been debated for centuries. The argument has been taken from the side of the empiricist, who desires quantitative proof and the pragmatist who fights that it is religions qualitative proofs that hold greater weight. In the Varieties of Religious Experience, William James sets forth that the argument of the pragmatist, stating that it is not the origin of religion that is of greatest importance but rather the results or fruits that have come from religious belief that are the true basis for the judgment of religion. In stark contrast, Sigmund Freud in his Civilization, Society and Religion, argues that the origins of religion are indeed of great importance due to the fact that they are infantile and provide for an illusionary existence if their beliefs are held as fact. However, Freud’s argument that religion is illusionary never truly makes its case for religion being harmful to humanity, but instead states what the necessity for a higher being fulfills in one’s psyche and not what the result of that influence is. James provides the stronger of the two arguments, as not only recognizes that there is an inherent need to understand the origins of religions, but most importantly that it is the fruits and not the roots of religion that are of greater importance to humanity in understanding the need for religion.

William James begins his work by setting aside the argument that by explaining the origins of something we have also provided an explanation for its origins. The value of something is be judged by its effects, not by its origin.

All questions of value, according to James, can be answered in knowledge gained through experience. James states that the term “religion” must deny any one experience, but states that the name is a collective term for a number of varying experiences. The qualitative differences seen in these experiences are dependent upon whether we recall them later and if they will bring us beneficial results or the fruits of life, as James puts it. One must now be willing to judge the religious life primarily by the results of that experience on the individual.

According to James, without religious ideas (whatever their origin) there is no proper reasoning for difficult moral choices, or hardships, and therefore, the quality of human life diminishes. For James the varieties of religious ideas that exist are important in that they lead humanity to perform moral and useful actions. He believes that without such encouragement these actions would not naturally take place. James emphasizes the individual experience, but states that the ideas that are shared and communal provide humanity with a means toward progress.

For those who question religious belief, James claims that those questions are of little importance to the practice of religion, or to the understanding and to the actions, which have very little value to humanity. Religious experience must be valued as an important contribution to human life; its truth manifests itself in the wonderful ways in which it enriches human conduct and feelings. However, the idea that humanity will ever be able to conclusively provide a rational argument for the presence of God must be set aside, and no attempt at such a proof should be made, as James believes it would serve no practical value.

James emphasizes that only a belief in God can give us sufficient justification for our natural desires for a morally strenuous life marked by concern for others. James clearly values this form of life more than others, and he believes that human beings will devote themselves to the heroic, the charitable and the morally demanding if religious ideas are made available. Without religious experience, James believes that the human potential for good would not occur. Without religious ideas, regardless of their origins, humanity would lack any proper justification for a morally exacting life and would fail to understand those for whom a morally exacting life is more important than a spacious living. Without religious ideas, therefore, the quality of human life would suffer greatly. There is a strong need for religion as part of the human psyche, it gives something to aim toward and find hope within.

James believes religion brings peace or mind and ease, and where it came from is of little consequence. Freud however, does not believe that there is necessity for religion, and that because of its origins religion is not justified. Freud begins the third section of his paper with the question “In what does the value of religion lie?” (195) He believes that its value lies in our need to have a defence against the forces of nature, to provide an answer for the terrors suffered by man and to give consolation for that pain. To gain that control we personalize nature and attempt to appease it through praise and bribery. (196) this personalization of nature offers us a way to understand what we are so powerless against and thus, to gain some sense of control over it.

Freud believes that the relationship of humanity and nature bears a great similarity to that of the relationship between the children to the parents. In that respect deities must put forward the following attributes; they must exorcise the terrors of nature, they must reconcile humanity to the cruelty of fate and they must compensate humanity of the sufferings and privations which a civilized life has condemned them.(197). Freud acknowledges that through time the roles of Gods and Goddesses have evolved but their tasks have remained generally the same; to protect humanity against the dangers of both nature and fate and to protect humanity against the injuries which threaten us from human society itself. In that way to protect us the way a parent protects and shields a child from the dangers of the world. Freud sees divinity as monotheistic, as the relationship between that of a parent and child and the intimacy that is shared there is the same as that of the divine and humanity.

Freud suggests that it is natural for humans to personify nature and the life as humans know from the beginning that the way to influence nature is through the establishment of relationships. The feelings of helplessness and weakness that humans feel does not argue against the notion of the exalted one but it also has a lot to do with the relationship between the child and the father. Freud’s notion of the mother is as the child’s first object choice, a relationship that is then replaced by the stronger father. This relationship is one of ambivalence and the child grows with the knowledge that he or she is forever to remain powerless and dependent upon others who are more powerful than he or she. This belief is continued in life as those powers are transmitted from the father to the divine. Freud states, “He creates for himself, the gods who he dreads, in whom he seeks to appropriate, and whom he nevertheless entrusts with his own protection.”

To Freud the physical origin of religious ideas is that they are the fulfilment of the oldest and strongest wished of humankind and for that reason they are illusions. They are illusions or wishes for the protection of humanity against the forces of nature. They are the moral justification and prolongation of earthly existence. As such wished Freud claims that they issue from the infant’s conflicts of the early father complex. “It is an enormous relief to the individual psyche if the conflicts of its childhood arising from the father-complex – conflicts which are never wholly overcome – are removed from it and brought to a solution which is universally accepted.” (212)

An illusion is an error made by humans in terms of wish fulfilment and borders on the line of psychotic delusions. The difference between the two being that a delusion is in complete contradiction with reality. Whereas illusions can be un-realizable or contradictory and not necessarily false in relation to reality. Therefore, according to Freud religious doctrines are illusions. Being that they cannot be refuted, proved or believed.

Freud’s inability to see the necessity of religion and the benefits that can be gained from it, seem to take away from the strength of his work. Although an interesting concept, Freud’s constant focus on the child and those first few years as well as his emphasis on the father, does not explain many religious experiences, for it is certain that not all people experience religion the same way. There is no fear of god in the Buddhism, but a necessity for inner peace. Freud dismisses religion simply because some of the characteristics that are held over from childhood are transferred to one’s feelings about God, a dismissal that is an unfair and unwarranted assessment.

James however, did provide for different religions and different experiences, which allows for a better argument and one that better stands the test of time. James believed that each individual had the right to affirm their religious belief solely on the basis of emotional predilection. James hope that Varieties would help to understand religion with the walls of personal experience as an important notion, James seems to understand religion at it’s very core. Although his conclusions seem modest and simple at times, that is the very essence of religion; to provide simplicity and promote modesty in one’s life.

Bibliography:

Freud, Sigmund ([1927]1985). The Future of an Illusion. Vol. 12 of the Pelican Freud Library. Middlesex: Penguin Books.

Http://www.psywww.com/psyrelig/james/toc.html.

Stephen Hawking, The history of the universe is one of the most perplexing subjects of all time

Stephen Hawking

The history of the universe is one of the most perplexing subjects of all time. For years, people have looked up to the stars and wondered; where does it end? Where do we come from? What of time travel? We have always watched science fiction movies on these subjects and wondered; can this be true? One man on the forefront of innovative ideas on time travel and the universe is Stephen hawking.

The scientific community takes Stephen Hawkins’ ideas very seriously. His theories on black holes, wormholes and time travel have made us think that anything is possible. He has given all of us a new way of thinking with his theories. He has also written books in an attempt to help non-scientists better understand his ideas.

What makes this man different from the thousands of other scientific geniuses? Why is his work so valued? In order to answer these questions we will have to look into what fellow scientists and friends have to say about him. We will look at his most important contributions according to other experts.

Stephen W. Hawking Stephen W. Hawking has a mind set that is beyond today’s general way thinking. His attempts to identify a grand unification theory that unites everything we know about the physical world and science far exceeds any realm of thinking that has ever graced this earth. Hawking was born on January 8, 1942 in Oxford, England. He spent most of his childhood in and around London, and was always a bit of a self-educator. He was interested in the stars, and his family used to lie out on the grass looking at the stars. His writing was appalling, and he was one of the only people at school to be issued with a copybook. He was never really good with his hands, and gave the impression of nervousness, being lanky and awkward in movement. (Evans, p.127) Stephen Hawking wanted to study mathematics and physics in a university, but his father believed that there would not be any jobs in mathematics and thus Hawking took physics and chemistry, and only a bit of math. Another reason he didn’t do mathematics is because when he attended University College, Oxford in 1959 they didn’t do mathematics. Hawking’s peers didn’t really realize how intelligent he was until his second year of University. They were assigned 13 honors questions in the area of Electricity and Magnetism, and while it took his friends Derek, Gordon and Richard a week to do 2 1/2 of them, Hawking did the first 10 in 3 hours. “Because he didn’t have time to finish the rest” (Hawking, ln. 71) was his reason for not completing all 13. He was a coxswain in the Boat Club, and was of course a member of the Boyle Society (the University College’s physics society). At one point during his time at the University, when Hawking fell down a flight of stairs, he totally f! orgot who he was for a few minutes, but eventually he remembered who he was, where he was, and what he did last week, last month, and last year. It took 2 hours for him to remember actually falling down the stairs. Shortly after this he took a Mensa test to see if he was still bright or not and got 200 or 250: so there was no permanent damage. In his 3rd year he began to notice that his hands were less useful than before. Hawking graduated from Oxford in 1962, at the age of 20, and took a trip to Persia with a friend. During the visit he got sick and after having tests shortly after returning and going up to Cambridge to do Graduate work, he was diagnosed with Amytropic lateral sclerosis also known as Lou Gerhig’s disease, or motor neuron disease as it is called in England. After being diagnosed with 2 1/2 years to live, Hawking decided to not start any research–believing that he was dying, he though he may not even finish his Ph.D. It was around this time that he met his future wife, Jane Wilde. (Scherniak, p.2 ln. 14) Hawking’s graduate thesis discussed what happens when a star burns off its fuel and collapses into a black hole. In 1965 he applied for and received a research fellowship at Caisus College, Cambridge and married Jane Wilde. They have 3 children: Robert, Lucy, and Timothy (born 1967, 1970 and 1979 respectively). Meeting Jane lifted Hawking out of his terminal-illness depression, and he started to work again. (Evans, p.132) Hawking’s research at Caisus College was to be done in theoretical physics (quantum physics or cosmology). He chose to do it in cosmology partly because he found elementary particles unattractive and because he wanted to study with Fred Hoyle, who was at Cambridge at the time (the most distinguished British astronomer of the time, and also a science fiction novelist). Hawking’s research centered on Black Holes, and from the late 60’s onward he has been in the forefront of Black Hole research. One discovery of Hawking’s is that Black Holes emit radiation. Based on Einstein’s general theory of relativity, nothing can escape the event horizon of a Black Hole, but based on quantum mechanics, for every particle there is an antiparticle. These particles are created at the same time, go through an existence, and collide to annihilate each other. With respect to the Black Hole, one of these particles falls into the Hole, leaving the other outside of the event horizon, emitting radiation. This radiation has been coined as “Hawking Radiation.” (Evans, ln. 20-25) By 1974 Hawking could still feed himself and get into and out of bed, but his wife Jane was finding it harder to take care of him and the 3 children, so Hawking got one of his research students to live with them, to help Jane out. In 1975 Hawking received the Pius XII medal from Pope Paul VI, as ‘a young scientist for distinguished work’. There has been a long-standing conflict between the Catholic Church and cosmology, going back to Galileo. (McDonald, ln. 23) When they went to the Vatican, Hawking saw Galileo’s Recantation, the document of Galileo’s recanting on his theory that the earth went around the sun, supposedly under the pressure of the church. Hawking has a great affinity for Galileo, as he was born 300 years to the day after Galileo’s death. In 1975 Hawking was elected Lucasian Professor of Mathematics once held by Isaac Newton. There is a big book that everyone who holds this title are supposed to sign. After a year as Lucasian Professor they realized that ! Hawking never signed it, so he did. That was the last time he ever signed his name. In 1981 Hawking was in the Vatican attending a conference in cosmology. When granted an audience with the Pope, Hawking was told that it was OK to study the evolution of the universe after the Big Bang but to not inquire about the Big Bang itself, as it was the moment of creation and therefore the work of God. Hawking’s lecture at the conference was on the possibility that space-time was finite without boundary (ie, no beginning, no end, no creation). Obviously the Pope wasn’t at the conference. In 1986 Hawking met with the Pope again, when he was admitted to the Pontifical Academy of Science. In 1982, faced with the fees of his daughter’s schooling, Hawking decided to write his most famous book A Brief History of Time. While in Switzerland, after he finished a first draft of the book, he developed pneumonia and had to undergo a lifesaving tracheostomy, which removed his ability to speak. (McDonald, ln. 32) He soon after started using the Perspex Device, which is basically a sheet of Plexiglas with letters on it such that when he looks at a letter you can see which one he’s looking at. Conversing letter-by-letter is tedious, and he moved onto a computer program that allowed him to pick words from a series of menus, accompanied by a voice synthesizer attached to his chair. He can speak up to 15 words a minute, and can save them on disk if he wants. The only bug in the program, he feels, is that it gives him an American accent. (AAYA, p.60) A Brief History of Time was meant to explain the basic ideas of laws that govern the universe. Hawking said that “Equations are necessary if you are doing accountancy, but they are the boring part of Mathematics. (McDonald, ln. 11) Most of the interesting ideas can be conveyed by words or pictures”. The book was published on April Fool’s Day, 1988–6 years after he started writing it. Since then it has been translated into 30 languages, and has sold about 5.5 million copies. A film has also been made, as well as A Brief History of Time: A Readers Companion (“the book of the film of the book”). Hawking is also a Fellow of the Royal Society. He attended the induction of Prince Charles into the Royal Society a year or two after his own induction, at which time he ran over Prince Charles’ toe with his wheelchair! Hawking believes that he is no different than anyone else. He believes that science is for everybody, not just a few scientists. If ever there is a complete theory of the universe, he believes that it should be understandable by everyone and discussed by everyone. “If we find the answer to that (a complete theory of the universe), it would be the ultimate triumph of human reason – for then we would know the mind of God.” -Stephen Hawking.

Bibliography:

Authors and Artists for Young Adults, Vol 13. p 60-65 (Mar. 1989). Evans, J. C. “The Physics Man”. Physics & Astronomy Department, George Mason University (10 Jan. 1992). Hawking, Stephen W. An Autobiography of Mine. URL: http://www.cambridge.edu.uk/Physicsdept/Research/Personnel/hawkingsw.html (2 Jan. 1995). MacDonald, Derek Bruce “A Hypertext Biography of Stephen Hawking”. URL: http://www.oxford.edu.uk/hawkingbio (5 Dec. 1994). Scherniak, David “Transcripts–Stephen Hawking”. URL: http://www.myna.com/~davidck/hawking.htm (Nov. 1989).

Sputnik To Mir A Brief History Of The SovietRussian Space Program

Sputnik To Mir: A Brief History Of The Soviet/Russian Space Program

Perhaps some of the most influential figures of the 20th century have not been eloquent politicians or powerful dictators. Indeed, they are scientists in search of technology to deliver humankind to the stars. In the Soviet Union, one name was synonymous with space exploration: Sergei Pavlovich Korolev. The father of the Soviet space program would go on to make these space records: first dog in orbit (Sputnik 2); first large scientific satellite (Sputnik 3); first man; first woman; first extra–vehicular walk; first craft to impact the Moon; first to orbit the Moon and photograph its back side; and finally, first to impact Venus. He would later design and launch the Soviet Union’s first communications satellite and first spy satellite, although not ahead of the US in these two feats.

During the time of the purges, Korolev spent time in the gulag system for alleged disloyalty to Stalin. He was later rescued by an old friend, the airplane designer Tupolev, whose sharaga was assigned to the design of rocket–assisted aircraft. It is possible that he put out a call for specialists, like Korolev, who could help him. In any case, Korolev was assigned to Tupolev’s sharaga and spent the war years working in various sharagas in Moscow and—when the Germans threatened that city—Omsk and Kazan.

Beginning in April 1945, the Soviets began to recover V–2 hardware, launch facilities, blueprints, and as many engineers and technicians as could be found. Because all of the launch and production facilities were in Soviet-controlled East Germany, the potential haul was huge. According to a CIA report, the institute, plus other rocket and guidance–related facilities in other parts of Germany, eventually numbered some 5,000 Germans. Korolev, on his return from Germany, was made chief designer of the R–1 missile, the Russian clone of the V–2.

In 1948, the visionary Mikhail Tikhonravov had made the case to Korolev for the development of an earth–orbiting satellite. Initially, he was unable to get support for the concept, and his presentation to a meeting of the Academy of Artillery Sciences was met with skepticism. “The topic is interesting…but we cannot include your report,” was the official reaction, according to Korolev’s biographer, Yarolslav Golovanov. Towards the end of 1953, though, having redesigned the R–7 rocket to carry a heavier payload, Korolev drafted a decree for the Central Committee of the Communist Party which included the possibility of using the vehicle to launch a satellite. Korolev’s deputy, Vassily Mishin, stated that the designer had to propose a Sputnik launch as part of the test program of the ICBM program, in order to get it approved by a group strongly influenced by the military. This group plagued Korolev throughout his career through their opposition to almost any space exploration initiative which might detract from weapons development. Thus, Korolev’s proposal was so delicately phrased that it merely referred to a “…new article which permits speaking about the possibility of designing an artificial Earth satellite within the next few years. By a certain reduction of the weight of the payload it will be possible for the satellite to achieve the necessary velocity of 8,000 m/sec.” The launch itself, on October 4, 1957, jolted the world, and in particular the Americans, who had every reason to think that they would have been first to achieve such a success.

The concept of putting up a satellite had been known to the world’s space enthusiasts for many years. Konstantin Tsiolkovsky and Robert Goddard had both written of the feasibility of such a launch. Serious proposals to launch a spacecraft into Earth orbit had been discussed since the mid–1940s. It was not until July 29, 1955, that the Eisenhower Administration announced that the US would launch a satellite—Vanguard. It would blow up on the pad two months after Sputnik’s success. Later that year, at the Sixth Congress of the International Astronautical Federation in Copenhagen, a delegation of Soviet scientists revealed at a press conference that the USSR might be in the game as well. Korolev would not be ready to put up his bird until after his R–7, in its fifth attempt, sent a dummy H–bomb some 6,000 km to Kamchatka, on August 21, 1957. With that success he made his move to beat the Americans with his Prostreishy Sputnik—simple satellite. He abandoned a plan to put up a big 1.3 ton scientific satellite (it would become Sputnik 3) because the instrument–designers were lagging. After bulldozing the development he produced in a month’s time a polished 83.6 kg sphere containing only a radio transmitter, batteries, and temperature measuring instruments. Clearly, his intention was to be the first.

For the next five years Korolev’s team was on a roll—the Sputniks were followed in 1958–59 by the Luna program. Luna 1 made the first moon flyby, Luna 2 was the first spacecraft to land on another celestial body, and Luna 3 saw the moon’s dark side for the first time. A model of Luna 3 was carried triumphantly by Anatoli Blagonravov and Leonid Sedov to Washington to present to American Rocket Society president John Stapp at the ARS Honors Night Dinner in 1959. During this time the US experienced failure seven times in their efforts to send Pioneer spacecraft to the Moon. The early 1960s brought the demise of the first five Rangers, developed by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL). Members of Korolev’s team labeled the ill-fated lunar exploration vehicles “American Kamikazes.” Rangers 6, 7 and 8 would, however, both reach the moon and return thousands of striking photos in 1964–65.

Korolev’s luck with Mars and Venus was poor. From 1960 to 1965 he experienced 13 successive failed missions before Venera 3, launched March 16, 1965. It became the first spacecraft to land on another planetary body. In the meantime, JPL was getting into high gear with the first Venus flyby, completed by Mariner 2 in 1962. The first close–up photographs of another planet came with Mariner 4 in 1964.

The early 1960s were still glory days for Korolev. He made headlines again on April 12, 1961, by sending Yuri Gagarin into orbit. Shortly after Gagarin’s launch John F. Kennedy took action that would prove to end the Russian’s domination of space. On May 25, 1961, the young President asked Congress to “commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the moon and returning him safely to earth.” In August a Korolev-built craft orbited cosmonaut Gherman Titov 17 times.

Korolev’s vision was far from through, however. After John Glenn became the first American in space in February 1962, Korolev anticipated the US successes sure to come with the two-man Gemini program. He thus devised the idea of putting not two, but three cosmonauts in orbit in what the West believed was a new, multi–man spacecraft. It was, however, Korolev’s “circus act,” as his deputy Mishin describes it. He had simply, or not so simply, redesigned the Vostok spacecraft that had orbited Gagarin and others. He then enclosed three cosmonauts without space suits, and without a launch–escape system, into a craft he named Voskhod. The same spacecraft would, in March 1965, achieve another first—a spacewalk by Alexei Leonov, three months ahead of the first US Extra-Vehicular Activity by the late astronaut Ed White in Gemini 4.

Surely, Korolev must have realized that time was running out on his victory skein. He was working hard on the Soyuz spacecraft, which would have carried cosmonauts to the moon. He had finally gained a measure of support for his scheme to put cosmonauts around the moon, and—in a different scenario—land one of them on the lunar surface. But he lacked the full backing, and funding, that was so generously awarded by the US Congress to the Apollo program. He had no rocket engine comparable to the huge F–1 engine, five of which would lift the Saturn V complex off the pad. He had no liquid hydrogen engine, which was crucial to the performance of the upper stages of Apollo/Saturn.

He even had to deal with competition from rival designers—Valentin Glushko, a rocket engine designer who had defected from Korolev’s team to join Vladimir Chelomei. Another team was headed by his former colleague, Mikhail Yangel. Glushko had refused to design the oxygen–kerosene engines that Korolev preferred and so another engine firm, experienced mostly with aircraft engines, had to be relied on. His subsequent design called for 24 engines in the first stage, which was later expanded to 30 when it became clear that the vehicle would be unable to lift the huge lunar payload. With constant opposition from the tunnel–visioned military, preoccupied with weapons, he never got the funds to static test his engines as a system, and this failure would prove fatal.

Still, before 1964 there were many on the Korolev team who felt they had a chance to beat the Americans. Boris Gubanov, a designer, said, “It was then the prevailing opinion in the USSR that the US would never get such a powerful development (Saturn V/Apollo) going. The engines were too large. The launch vehicle was too big and the use of liquid hydrogen too complex. It was a major mistake for Korolev to underestimate the US. It wasn’t until 1964–65 that this mistake was realized.” At the end of 1965 the pressure from Korolev’s crushing agenda of space projects was mounting just as his relationships with his funding sources were deteriorating. Scheduling an operation, therefore, was hardly opportune. But the Chief Designer was drained physically, and perhaps a hospital stay, even including minor surgery, would be therapeutic.

Incredibly, up to this time Sergei Pavlovich Korolev had been known to the Soviet public only through the press as the “Chief Designer.” Now, finally, it was time to reveal who he was. Insiders, of course, knew. But the glory and plaudits which had gone to the cosmonauts— and to American space heroes like Werner von Braun, whom he had long admired, although not openly, had never reached him in his lifetime. Now they would. Today there are many Korolev monuments and streets, and even the town where his design bureau stands has been given his name. Ironically, it is this design bureau, today named Rocket Space Corporation Energia, named for Sergei Pavlovich Korolev, which has the lead Russian role in assembling, in cooperation with the US, the European Space Agency, Canada and Japan, the International Space Station. After his death the monumental job of continuing the competition to beat the US to the moon fell to Vassily Mishin. There are those who feel that the Soviet failure to win can be blamed on Mishin, but most knowledgeable engineers consider him a scapegoat. The US program was too technologically superior in engine design, spacecraft sophistication, computer capability and electronic microminiaturization, to name just some of the factors going for them. Twenty–four billion US dollars and a fully cooperative Congress were others.

Until the end of the 1960s Soviet engineers concentrated more on flight test than development and qualification testing to achieve production systems. But the poor reliability of first generation military systems, and the loss of the moon race to the Americans due to the unreliability of the systems, resulted in major reforms in the early 1970s. The result was that by the 1980s the Soviets were putting even more emphasis on pre-flight ground qualification and development test than the Americans.

The 1970s saw the rise and fall of the United States’ Skylab program. The orbiting space station was fashioned out of an old Saturn rocket fuselage, eventually re-entering the atmosphere that same decade. It crashed into the heart of the Australian Outback. The now infamous Mir Space Station was the Soviet response to the latest American achievement. It would serve as the focus of Russian space involvement prior to the International Space Station project. Much of the coverage of the demise of the Mir space station was misty-eyed and nostalgic. Commentators used Mir’s decline as a metaphor for Russia’s fall. This lamentation is misguided. Instead, we should say “Good riddance!” The station’s decommissioning is a sign not of Russia’s decline, but of her liberation. An offshoot–like the entire Soviet space program–of the Soviet ballistic missile project, Mir was designed exclusively to serve the military-industrial complex that for decades had looted and beggared Russia. In 1998, Yevgeny Primakov, then the foreign minister, revealed that the Soviet Union was spending 70 percent of its gross domestic product on “defense and defense-related projects.”

When Mir was launched in 1986, 35 percent of Soviet hospitals did not have hot water and 30 percent lacked indoor toilets. The country’s infant mortality rate was higher than that of Barbados. Half of Soviet schools had no central heating or running water. People spent between 40 and 60 hours a month in lines, and ration coupons were needed to buy 400 grams of sausage a month. It has been famously said of Peter the Great that he had forged a rich state of the impoverished people. Mir was a symbol of such a state.

Can North Korea afford its missiles when its people starve? Can China afford to increase its defense budget by 8 percent annually? Can Vietnam afford the fourth-largest army in the world, or could Cuba afford an expeditionary force in Angola in the 1980s? It was not the absence of money that killed Mir but the transition to a political system in which the rulers must account for their spending to a democratically elected parliament, a free press, an opposition and, ultimately, the voting public. The national goals changed accordingly. “A great power is not mountains of weapons and subjects with no rights,” Boris Yeltsin declared in 1997. “A great power is a self-reliant and talented people with initiative. The sole measure of the greatness of our motherland is the extent to which each citizen of Russia is free, healthy, educated and happy.” As president, Mr. Yeltsin cut defense spending to under 5 percent of the country’s gross domestic product–and Mir was doomed long before its fiery descent. One hopes, fervently, that in a not-so-distant future a democratic Russia will be rich enough to restart its space program–as an embodiment of prosperity and free will, not of militarized tyranny preying on a terrorized nation.

Bibliography:

Erickson, Lance. Dr. Erickson’s Homepage. 1999.

Pesavento, Peter. Two weeks that killed the Soviet dream. New Scientist. 18 Dec 1993.

P29(4).

United States. US Centennial Flight Commission. Early Soviet Human Spaceflight Program.

2003.

Wade, Mark. “Korolev.” Astronautix. 26 June 2002.

Space Flight, John F. Kennedy delivered one of the most memorable State of the Union addresses in the history of the United S

Space Flight

On May 25, 1961, John F. Kennedy delivered one of the most memorable State of the Union addresses in the history of the United States. “I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the earth” (http://www.cs.umb.edu/jfklibrary, President John F. Kennedy’s Special Message to the Congress on Urgent National Needs). With those words, Kennedy launched a new era of space exploration in the United States. Although the National Aeronautics And Space Administration was created in 1958 by the National Aeronautics and Space Act (http://www.hq.nasa.gov, Key Documents), and the Russians already launched the first satellite into space in 1957, the US was still at a stand still on the subject.

What the country needed was a wake-up call, and that is exactly what it got from one of the most celebrated speakers in its history. The new era promised much, but expected little. From USA’s struggle to be the dominant world power in the Cold War Era, to the careless depletion of natural resources in the Information Age, space exploration and astronauts were and will be the real keys to the new millennium and beyond. Before looking into the future, or even evaluating the present, one must look in detail at the history of the space project. The missions that gave scientists and engineers the necessary data and experience to make new, safer, more reliable and intricate equipment were launched long before there was realistic talk of sending probes to Mars. The astronauts that helped shape the training programs, took the beatings of primitive flight tests, and died in order to serve their country were born before World War II.

And even the Russian Space Program was crucial to what the space program is today. It fueled competition, and provided more resources for American engineers. Until Apollo 11, they were ahead of the Americans in almost everyway, with their launch of Sputnik, a unmanned satellite in 1957, and their countless firsts in orbiting and space walks. Yuri Gagarin was the first man in space. Although most of the missions that have been launched have been important in their own ways, some missions just stand out, whether it was the first step on the Moon, or the first mission to Mars. NASA’s first high profile program was Project Mercury, an effort to learn if humans could survive in space. It was the prelude to the later missions, and it gave NASA the necessary data to build better, and more comfortable ships for humans to stay in space for extended periods of time. The first launch of the Mercury program was the LJ-1 on August 21, 1959.

At thirty-five minutes before launch, evacuation of the area had been proceeding on schedule. Suddenly, half an hour before launch-time, an explosive flash occurred. When the smoke cleared it was evident that only the capsule-and-tower combination had been launched, on a trajectory similar to an off-the-pad abort (http://www.ksc.nasa.gov, Mercury: LJ-1). The first mildly successful spacecraft launch occurred September 9, 1959. Although the BJ-1 ship experienced some problems, and the timing on some of the separation procedures was off, the capsule made it back to earth some seven hours after lift-off. The capsule orbited the earth for approximately thirteen minutes (Mercury: BJ-1).

Mercury mission MA-5 was the first to carry live organisms into sub-orbit. Although Enos – a chimpanzee, was not a perfect substitute for a human, he served as a good test for the environmental controls of the capsule. He orbited the earth in total weightlessness for over three hours and upon landing was in perfect physical condition (Mercury: MA-5). On May 5, 1961, Freedom 7 was the first launch to carry humans into space. Alan B. Shepard, Jr. was the only crewmember, and the successful mission lasted for over 15 minutes (Mercury: MR-3). More manned flights from the Mercury series followed, highlighted by the Friendship 7, where on February 20, 1962, John Glenn was the first American in actual orbit, and he orbited the earth three times for a little under five hours (Mercury: MA-6).

The last mission from the Mercury project came on May 15, 1963, where L. Gordon Cooper was in orbit in the Faith 7 for over a day. Total weightless time was over thirty-four hours, and the mission was celebrated and deemed more than successful (Mercury: MA-9). Gemini missions followed which built on the success of the Mercury flights, and basically followed the same outlines, except with a crew of two astronauts. The most monumental program in the history of the US came next, following the late President Kennedy’s mission of landing a person on the Moon. The Apollo project featured many milestones, and also some setbacks. The Apollo 1 mission was a huge failure as astronauts Virgil Grissom, Edward White, and Roger Chaffee lost their lives when a fire swept through the Command Module (Apollo 1). After a few more test flights, Apollo 8, launched on December 21, 1968, was the first manned lunar orbital mission, staying in the Moon’s orbit for twenty hours, making ten circles (Zimmerman, 6).

While the flights before were all important, the most celebrated and documented mission in the history of the US was the Apollo 11, where Neil A. Armstrong, Michael Collins, and Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr. were the first to land on the Moon. The mission launched without any delays on July 16, 1969, and even the crewmembers could barely grasp the magnitude of their mission. Before the flight, while the astronauts were being strapped in, Michael Collins had this to say, “Here I am, a white male, age thirty-eight, height 5 feet 11 inches, weight 165 pounds, salary $17,000 per annum, resident of a Texas suburb, with black spot on my roses, state of mind unsettled, about to be shot off to the Moon. Yes, to the Moon” (http://www.ksc.nasa.gov, Apollo 13). The flight went perfectly and on July 20 at 04:17 p.m. EDT, “The eagle has landed.” The first step on Moon, was at exactly 10:56:15 p.m. EDT, and Aldrin described the experience better than anyone else could, “We opened the hatch and Neil, with me as his navigator, began backing out of the tiny opening. It seemed like a small eternity before I heard Neil say, “That’s one small step for man . . . one giant leap for mankind.” In less than fifteen minutes I was backing awkwardly out of the hatch and onto the surface to join Neil, who, in the tradition of all tourists, had his camera ready to photograph my arrival” (Apollo 13). There were celebrations all around the world, especially in the US when Neil Armstrong place the US flag into the rocky lunar soil, and straightened out the creases. At this time, the two astronauts on the surface received probably the biggest phone call of their life, from the president.

“Neil and Buzz, I am talking to you by telephone from the Oval Office at the White House, and this certainly has to be the most historic telephone call ever made . . . Because of what you have done, the heavens have become a part of man’s world. As you talk to us from the Sea of Tranquility, it inspires us to redouble our efforts to bring peace and tranquility to Earth…” (Bean, 47). On July 24, 1969, the astronauts splashed down in the Pacific Ocean, and within minutes, they were on the USS Hornet (http://www.ksc.nasa.gov, Apollo 13). More missions would follow, particularly the Apollo 13 mission, which was almost a complete disaster. Another mission to set humans on the Moon, was aborted after numerous failures – 200,000 miles from Earth. The astronauts did return in a Life Module. The last of the Apollo missions was the Apollo – Soyuz project that brought along the peace process started earlier by Nixon. The Viking project was the beginning of the Mars exploration, with the first two Viking lander and orbiter missions in 1976 (Vogt, 60).

The atmospheric conditions taken from those missions serve as background information for today’s plans to send humans to Mars. The Voyager missions in 1979 were set to explore Saturn in detail, and Jupiter, Uranus, and Neptune as fly-bys (Vogt, 22). Although these missions served to collect a lot of data for future research and went to further planets, they were not as big as the manned flights to the Moon, particularly because space exploration was so new, and because the missions to the Moon had a patriotic feel to them. But history of astronauts would not be complete with out a more detailed information about some of the more famous astronauts. John Glenn, the first American in orbit on the Friendship 7 flight, was a pilot of over ninety missions in the Korean War (Kramer, 18). Chosen for his experience as well as his bravery in the war, he rose to the rank of Colonel in the US Marine Corps before going into NASA.

He trained on crude machinery, before NASA came up with a set training program (20). He was 42 when he flew for the first time in his orbital mission (34), and he later became a Senator (39). Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin, both flew in the Apollo 11, and were the first two people to walk on the moon. They will always be remembered for their historic feat. Both Armstrong and Aldrin were 39 when they flew the Apollo mission. Armstrong was the first civilian in space, and in his first flight, he was the commander of the Apollo 11 mission. “Buzz” Aldrin was a Colonel in the US Air Force, and he was also chosen for his flying experience. Because Americans have lost interest in the space program without competition, there has not been another crop of astronauts as famous as those since the days of the Apollo mission. History of space flight has been very rich with accomplishments and milestones, but it appears that the world has reached a small bottleneck for technology in the area of space exploration. In addition, the lack of competition from any other country has slowed down the pace of innovation. With the Russian Space Program in shambles, as well as the whole country of Russia, the former USSR has not produced much useful technology lately. With a huge space station in the making, Russia is the only country that has not made the necessary parts for its completion, due to costly maintenance of their old space station, Mir, on which Russia and America have worked together on conducting experiments in the years after the USSR’s break-up. With Mir’s retirement, Russia now has the time and the resources to complete their part of the International Space Station which will accelerate space exploration. America has a few of its own projects going on right now, like the Galileo, the Pathfinder, and the Mars Polar Lander. Galileo is one of the probes out right now, scheduled to study the environmental conditions of Venus and Jupiter (http://galileo.jpl.nasa.gov, Galileo).

The Mars Pathfinder, launched 2 years ago, has recently made some important discoveries about the water content on Mars, and the climate history of the “red” planet. Endless information has been sent back to earth about Mars’ ice caps, and rock formations, which have concluded that there was standing water on Mars, including oceans and seas (http://polarlander.jpl.nasa.gov/, Pathfinder). Although the Pathfinder has set the Mars exploration mission on the right track, the recent failures with the Mars Polar Lander mission have set back the program. The communication with the new lander could not be established and the ship is presumed lost. Critics say that the “faster, cheaper, better” approach taken with the lander has actually cost the government more than $36 million, and the valuable time of building and getting a new lander in position (Associated Press, 1A). Although the present movement of the space program appears to have stalled, maybe the future holds the answers.

What is in the future of the space program ? Eventually, people will settle on the planets close to earth, if not because of exploration, but because of a lack of natural resources, which is catching up with mankind. Prototypes of human habitats on Mars are being made, and NASA hopes to have humans on Mars by 2050. The International Space Station should be well on its way to being built, and should be functioning in the next five to ten years (http://polarlander.jpl.nasa.gov, Future). New cheaper satellites and explorers are also coming in the near future. The new explorers with plasma propulsion are already in design, and are going to cost no more than one million per unit greatly slashing today’s price. They are also going to have a virtually inexhaustible fuel capacity, because of the special engine design using metal for fuel. This explorer will be so affordable that they could be sent out in many directions to explore countless star systems, and still be inexpensive enough to lose (Chaikin, 60).

Plans that are being talked about right now may be a little far fetched sometimes, but even if some of them will materialize, the future looking bright indeed. Forty-eight years ago, John F. Kennedy set a grand plan in motion. His State of the Union address pushed the United States to its limits. Better training methods, and many schools for future astronauts have made a big difference in the level of the training, ability and intelligence of the future crews of American spaceships. Now, even with interest dwindling, and problems piling up, Americans have to try their best to stare in the face of adversity, and look at the big picture – the endless “playground” known as outer space.

Bibliography

Bibliography Associated Press. “NASA ends any hopes for Mars spacecraft.” The Baltimore Sun 8 Dec. 1999, final ed., sec. A: 1, 6. Chaikin, Alan. Apollo. Shelton: The Greenwich Workshop, 1998. Chaikin, Andrew. “The Great Debate.” Popular Science July 1998: 60 – 65. Kramer, Barbara. John Glenn: A Space Biography. Springfield: Enslow Publishers, Inc., 1998. Vogt, Gregory. Viking and the Mars. Brookfield: The Millbrook Press, 1991. Vogt, Gregory. Voyager. Brookfield: The Millbrook Press, 1991. Zimmerman, Robert. Genesis. New York: Four Walls Printing, 1998. “Apollo 1.” NASA. 5 Dec. 1999 “Apollo 13.” NASA. 5 Dec. 1999 “Future.” NASA. 5 Dec. 1999 “Galileo.” NASA. 5 Dec. 1999 “Mercury: LJ-1.” NASA. 5 Dec. 1999 “Mercury: BJ-1.” NASA. 5 Dec. 1999 “Mercury: MA-5.” NASA. 5 Dec. 1999 “Mercury: MR-3.” NASA. 5 Dec. 1999 “Mercury: MA-6.” NASA. 5 Dec. 1999 “Mercury: MA-9.” NASA. 5 Dec. 1999 “National Aeronautics and Space Act.” NASA. 5 Dec. 1999 “Pathfinder.” NASA. 5 Dec. 1999 “President John F. Kennedy’s Special Message to the Congress on Urgent National Needs.” JFK Library. 5 Dec. 1999

Two painters that both worked under Spanish rule, Diego Velazquez and Peter Paul Rubens were considered two of the greatest p

Rubens

Two painters that both worked under Spanish rule, Diego Velazquez and Peter Paul Rubens were considered two of the greatest painters in Europe. Diego Velazquez, being a more visual, rather then spiritual preferred, to paint portraits as well as genre scenes. His style one may consider calm, and easy on the eyes. Peter Paul Rubens on the other hand, painted highly sacred pieces capturing dynamic poses full of drama. Perhaps their preferences of subject matter were affected by where they mainly worked.

Peter Paul Rubens came from Flanders. Found in the southern Netherlands, it was a highly Catholic area. So of course, his work was often depicted sacred subjects. Velazquez on the other hand was the court painter for King Philip IV of Spain. This being the case, he had I’d imagine, more commissions to do personal portraits. As I said earlier, the over all mood of their paintings were complete and total opposites as well. Diego Velazquez’ paintings are soothing on the eyes, leading it slowly around, observing each skillful stroke, every realistically proportioned character.

He worked hard to match texture’s apperence. “Las Meninas” itself is a massive painting that is a combination of genre scene, group portrait, and self portrait. Peter Paul Rubens’ painting, “Allegory of the Outbreak of War” on the other hand, portrayed muscular figures that were influenced by Michelangelo. He dynamic composition, bold color, and brilliant light kept ones eye constantly on the move. It is highly debated whether or not “Las Meninas” is Velazquez’ personal manifesto. He seemed to have portrayed himself possibly on equal ground with the royal family to indirectly hint that he deserved more. “Allegory of the Outbreak of War” was quite a different type of Manifesto. It was a manifesto of Peter Paul Rubens’ personal feelings on war rather then portraying himself. These two men are both great painters, one for painting perhaps one if not the best painting in western art and the other know for setting the standards for European art, have some similarities but also differ greatly in terms of mood, use of colors, and dynamics.

“Las Meninas” was painted by Diego Velazquez in the year 1656. It is oil on canvass and measures at 10’5″ by 9’1″. Velazquez seemed to be the kind of painter that could find the silver lining in everyone. “Las Meninas” is a portrait of the princess Margarita, daughter of King Phillip IV of Spain along with her maids ladies-in-waiting. It was painted during the Spanish baroque. As I mentioned earlier, this painting is a combination of genre scene, group portrait and self portrait. It is considered by some to be the greatest painting in western art. It is now found in the Prado in Madrid

Peter Paul Rubens painted “Allegory of the Outbreak of War” in 1638 during the Flemish baroque. It’s is about 6′ 9″ by 11′ 4″. He was considered the greatest of the Flemish baroque painters. Ruben’s muscular figures were based off of Michelangelo’s style while his devotion to minute detail was of northern influence. As a man, Peter Paul Rubens well educated, wealthy and well liked. This painting however was his most powerful and personal work. Having seem so much war, he used his works to present his feeling on war. It portrays Mars moving forward to bring chaos to the world as Venus tries in vein to stop him. This piece currently hangs in the Pitti Gallery, Florence

“Las Meninas” is a beautifully painted work. Not only is it considered Velazquez’ greatest painting, it is considered one of the greatest in history. That’s a very impressive statement. Perhaps what makes it so impressive is the artist’s drive for optical realism. The forms are suggested through loosely applied paint. Also what makes this painting interesting is that nothing is emphasized, and nothing forced. Our eyes take a calm stroll through the painting, wandering from character to character in an arc like path from Velazquez, dipping down to the lowest point being the princess, and completing the arc, the eye travels back up with the girl to the right of the princess. As I said, it’s a combination of genre scene, group portrait, and self portrait. And the figures are captured in a baroque moment.

This painting also makes use of tenebrism and impasto. “Allegory of the Outbreak of War”, however is an intense look on the brutalities of war. It uses intense color and dynamic figures to emphisize the panic of the situation. The figures and placed in figura serpentinata. As with most of Peter Paul Rubens paintings, there is a high contrast of dark and light. Another note-able characteristic is the intense use of primary colors. For example, the blue sky and intense red of Mar’s cape. Both of these wonderful paintings successfully portray the characters depicted in their own world; breathing their own air. The figures are all realistically interacting with each other and of course, captured in a baroque moment.

Both of these paintings are personal manifesto for their creators personal feelings. But that is where the similarity ends. Velazquez painted “Las Meninas” to indirectly suggest to the royal family that he believed that he deserved greater recognition and standing in the court. He does so by several rather subtle means. First of all, the portrait he created of himself.

Instead of wearing an artists smock, he is wearing his royal court garbs with a knights cross over his chest. Another theorized idea is that to the right of the painter is a mirror as opposed to a painting that some may believe. In the reflection of the mirror stands the king and queen, thus Velazquez is putting himself on equal grounds with the royal family. A very bold statement. Ruben’s manifesto on the other hand is of a less self promoting nature. It is more like a protest to the constant wars taking place at the time. The painting depicts Mars having left the temple of Janus open. Which should be closed in times of peace. His love, Venus tries to stop him along with her small love gods using caresses but to no avail.

The Fury Alecto pulls Mars forward, to bring chaos to the world. There is a woman with broken lute signifying that harmony is impossible beside the discord of war, a mother holding her child showing that war opposes furtility and tenderness. There are many other less import forms of symbolism present but one last main figure is the sorrowful woman behind Mars and Venus, wearing all black, a torn veil, and deprived of her jewel represents unhappy Europe. Who has long suffered as a result of war.Both of these paintings are great examples of how artists can work their personal feelings otherwise known as manifesto into their paintings. One may consider them complete opposites when it come to the overall feeling mood of their works. They are considered equally great because Velazquez may have created one of the greatest paintings in all of western art but Rubens is credited with creating the first real European style.

Bibliography:

The Cathedral Amiens was built in 1152 with the Romanesque style and burnt in 1218 by lightnings

RenaisssanceThe Cathedral Amiens was built in 1152 with the Romanesque style and burnt in 1218 by lightnings. The reconstruction was started in about 1220 and the nave was completed in about 1245.The choir was started to reconstruct in about 1238 and completed befor 1269 and the most of part including transept was completed in 1288. The south tower was constructed in about 1366, and the north tower was done in about 1401.

Amiens Cathedral, in the heart of Picardy and a couple of hours’ drive north of Paris, one of the largest and most “classical” of French cathedrals of the 13th century in Gothic era. It is the tallest complete cathedral in France. It is notable for the coherence of its plan, the beauty of its three-tier interior elevation and the particularly fine display of sculptures on the principal façade in the south transept. Although there are some other Cathedrals are more omate, Amiens is the largest and the most famous one. And the inside of the cathedral shows the sign of the new way of the matured Gothic design such as the triforium of the choir. It was fitted by stained grasses and produced bright upper part of the elevation with clerestory as if it was two-story. Originally the triforium of the nave was to be fitted by stained grasses as well as the choir but it changed to the wall because of the structural reason for the three meter extention of the nave’s height. The style of the seven radiating chapels facing double ambulatory of the choir became a model of the cathedrals

The term Gothic was first used during the later Renaissance, and as a term of contempt. Some people also said that Gothic is the style arose after the manner of the barbarous nations erected buildings. “The ancient Greek and Roman architecture answered all the perfections required in a faultless and accomplished building, but Goths and Vandals destroyed these and introduced in their stead a certain fantastical and licentious manner of building: congestions of heavy, dark, melancholy, monkish piles, without any just proportion, use of beauty.” (Evelyn) The technical revolution in architecture known as “Gothic” began at the end of the 12th century and lasted just over two hundred years. It was a significant structural improvement upon the Romanesque building that preceded it. As with almost any large undertaking, there were political implications for the people involved in the operation of building a cathedral. The type of cathedrals built in England at a given time were thus representative of the political, social and economic situation there at the time of construction.

Cathedral is a church which contains a cathedra or a throne for a bishop. The origin cathedrals were the homes of Benedictine monks. They were usually built with some inexpensive and readily available materials. Roofs were usually made of oak, and walls were constructed with stones from a variety of English mines. Marble was a common material used in Italy. Unfortunately, there were no marble imported into England during the Gothic period. Enlish master masons used “Purbeck marble” instead. It can still be seen in the above images of Lincoln cathedral. It is the black stone used in the columns.

The master builders and craftsmen of the Gothic era learned how to build strong, tall edifices that were both light and decorative. There were some obstacles for these men such as wind pressure, balance, mass, abutment, thrust and how to support the sheer weight of these massive structures. Not much mathematical theory was used in the design, but lots of tracing and sketching instead.

The general shapes of the Gothic buildings are cross or crucifix. Buildings of the crucifix shape are called “cruciform” after the cross that Christ was hung on. The main entrance into the cathedral is usually through the west into the nave, the place where people may meet and see the church’s artwork and attend services. Each arm of the cruciform is called a transept. The chapter-house was used for the more formal gatherings of “chapter”, the groups of monks that lived in the cathedral and formed its governing body. All the cathedrals also have Lady Chapel, where the Virgin Mary was worshiped. It contained an altar to her and was usually at the eastern-most point of the cathedrals.

There are certain classic elements of English Gothic architecture which not only added aesthetically to the cathedrals, but were also great structural revolutions. Every small detail, even a small flower at the top of an arch stands for a reason, its own purpose. The pointed arch is one of the technical advances of the Gothic cathedral. This is the point at which the top of the columns meet. Having them meet at an angle rather than a curve added strength because of the more efficient way the weight carries by the columns was distributed. Thus, fewer columns would be needed to support a building of the same size or larger. Another technical advance is the vaults. They were the internal supports of the cathedral ceiling. They disperse across the ceiling the weight to be carried by the columns. The last technical advance was the flying buttress. They assisted in carrying the thrust of the vaults. These external designs are also another example of a functional addition to cathedral design that was also embellished upon for the purpose of beauty. With these advances, the whole church’s structure becomes lighter, airier, and taller, stretching cathedrals to the heavens.

However, toward the end of the 14th century, many Flemish artists went to France, and a Franco-Flemish style was created, showing an elegance and interest in minute detail; so wide was its diffusion that it came to be known as the International Style. At about this time panel painting, under the lead of Flanders and Italy, achieved preeminence over all other forms of painting. In the 15th century, individual painters, such as Stephan Lonchner, Martin Schonguaer, and Mathias Grunewald in Germany, mark the culmination of Gothic art. Others, such as Jean Fouquet in France and the Van Eycks in Flanders, point the way to the Renaissance, while retaining much of the Gothic spirit. In 15th-century Italy, where the Gothic style had never really taken root, the early Renaissance was already in full flower. Although the Gothic style didn’t last long in the history, but there are still many architectures and arts remain and are still visited by people even till now. Some of them became the world heritages, such as Amiens Cathedrals. It is actually one of the most important achievements from the Gothic era.

Bibliography:

The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001.

Gothic Architecture by Paul Crossley, Paul FranklAMIENS CATHEDRAL Web Site by Columbia University

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