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What is the Categorical Imperative and What Role does it play in Kant’s Moral Philosophy

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What is the Categorical Imperative and What Role does it play in Kant’s Moral Philosophy?

It is difficult for any philosopher in any given century to make a significant influence on any particular issue in philosophy. For a philosopher to influence as numerous areas in philosophy as Kant did is, therefore, impressive. His theory on ethics is as influential as his work in metaphysics and in epistemology. In most of his works, the philosophy is decidedly against what is commonly referred to as deontology in ethics. Deontology is a term used to refer to the study of duty. On the view of the philosopher, the sole trait that gives an action some worth in morality is not the result that the action achieves, but the motive guiding the action. The categorical imperative is the philosopher’s famous stance of the duty. He argues that individuals should only act according to that dictum by which they can similarly will that individuals should understand it as a law that is universal to all. This paper, therefore, will look at what this categorical imperative really is and try to show what role the notion plays in the rest of the philosophy of Kant.

The categorical imperative is the key philosophical concept in Kant’s moral philosophy. There are a number of ways through which the categorical imperative can be defined, and one is that it is a way of assessing the driving forces behind human actions. According to Immanuel Kant, human beings are special among all the other creations. To him, one can sum up or understand morality as one ultimate imperative or commandment of reason, from which all obligations and duties derive. An imperative, to the philosopher, is any kind of proposition that declares or defines both an action and inaction to be crucial. Therefore, hypothetical imperatives drive actions in certain circumstances. For instance, one has to learn if he wishes to add to his knowledge, and just the same, one has to have a drink if they need to quench their thirst. On the other hand, a categorical imperative denotes or defines a requirement that is both unconditional and absolute, one that asserts its authority in every circumstance, both justified and required as an end to itself.

Kant felt extremely dissatisfied and discontent with the common moral philosophy of his time, and he believed that this moral philosophy could never pass over the level of hypothetical imperatives. The utilitarian, for example, practiced one of these moral philosophies. To them, when one committed a murder, they thought it was wrong because it did not maximize good for the largest groups of people. This philosophy, however, does not apply to individuals who are only worried about themselves and in benefiting themselves. As it follows, Kant pointed out that systems of hypothetical morals cannot persuade any actions in morality or be seen as moral judgment bases against others, as the imperatives driving them depend too much on considerations that are subjective. As an alternative, he came up with a deontological moral system that categorical imperatives determined, and guided.

The categorical imperative has a number of duties to play in the philosophy developed by Kant. For instance, it helps us understand which actions are forbidden and which are obligatory. Hypothetical imperatives are usually conditional; if I want something then I must engage in a certain action. To Kant, these imperatives are not moral or ethical, as to him, the only moral actions and imperatives are those that are categorical; I have to do something, without referring to needs or desires. He came up with three types of categorical imperatives. The first is the universal law, which points out that all moral statements ought to be general laws, which apply to all individuals under all circumstances.

This category suggests that there should not be any time under which a person makes any exception. The other the category of categorical imperative is that people should treat all people as ends to themselves. The philosopher argues here that individuals should not treat others as a way to some end. To him, people must be treated and seen as ends in themselves, something that ensures that there is equality. The final category that Kant came up with is that people should act as if they live in a kingdom made up of ends. He assumed that all agents who are rational had the ability to deduce whether an argument is moral, and not only through reason, and that all humans who are rational should have the ability to come to the same conclusion on moral laws.

The categorical imperative, therefore, plays an essential role in the development and conception of the rest of the philosophy developed by Kant because with it comes the guiding principle of ethics and morality, the categorical imperative becomes the driving force for determining whether an action is ethical or not. At this point, it is essential to understand that the categorical imperative is concerned only with abstract and general moral actions. Therefore, it determines whether an action is wrong or right. In general, Kant’s philosophy relies on the critical realization of moral law that is present in the subject or agent, and this moral law is best defined by his categorical imperative.

There is no Hope of Doing Perfect Research, the very essence of the process is imperfect

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There is no Hope of Doing Perfect Research, the very essence of the process is imperfectResearch is a term commonly used to refer to the fetching of information and investigations carried out on a certain topic from different sources such as books, people, the Internet, journals, newspaper articles, among other sources of information. As it follows, knowledge and the information present on a certain matter is far from perfect, and that is the reason why it is necessary for new innovation, inventions, discoveries, and up- gradations after studies have been completed and published. Research involves searching for information that is already available in the minds of researchers or in print. Researchers have to find this information through a number of ways, and they have to depend on a numerous sources, but all in all, most studies are accomplished under the basis of trial and error, and this is what is commonly referred to as the research process. As the name indicates, this process is marred with numerous inaccuracies, errors, misunderstandings and mistakes, without which the essence of a real process of research can never be attained. As one develops a subject from scratch; therefore, the process in its development encounters notable failures. As it is, saying that it is possible to conduct a perfect research is absurd and even incorrect because the very essence of the process is imperfection.

One thing that we are all aware of and that has caused much controversy and furthered doubts that perfect studies can ever exist is the controversy that relates to the third law of motion formulated by Newton. This controversy came about after the Bernoulli, another scientist, carried out a similar study but came up with different results. Newton’s study was on principles guiding motion while Bernoulli’s was on the principles governing the conservation of energy, which is also controversial to the third law of motion by Newton. Both of the researchers through their surveys have gotten results and formulated theories that justifies why airplanes are able to fly and stay in the air without falling. The third law of motion by Newton states that, for any act, there is a reaction that is either opposite or equal (Dole and Lewis 143). On the other hand, the theory of conservation of energy by Bernoulli states that air that moves faster creates a pressure that is low and that the converse also applies (McCormick, Papadakis and Asselta 46).

The Bernoulli principle is controversial to the law of motion, and this is enough proof that research is never perfect. Research, therefore, is a process that never ends. It is also a process that is continuous and evolves in a manner that one researcher uses the conclusions made by another to conclude and make some entirely new findings. There happenings that have taken place that have proven numerous studies wrong. Had such researches been perfect and complete, there is a possibility that a necessity would not occur to repeat the same study. In fact, one of the main reasons why I conclude that there can never be a perfect research or study is that research usually makes use if a conclusion that was in existence and that which had been formulated by another researcher to make or base the conclusions of a present research. As such, there is no and there, can never be a perfect research.

Works cited

Dole, C. and Lewis, J. Flight Theory and Aerodynamics: a Practical Guide for Operational Safety. New York: Wiley- IEEE, 2000. Print.

McCormick, B., Papadakis, J. and Asselta, J. Aircraft Accident Reconstruction and Litigation. New York: Lawyers & Judges Publishing Company, 2003. Print

There Is No Hope of Doing Perfect Research, statement by Griffiths in 1998 that there really is no hope o

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There Is No Hope of Doing Perfect Research (Griffiths, 1998, P97)

As the world moves on in terms of technology and scientific development, research has become unarguably one of the most essential aspects of advancement in a number of fields. Research has been utilized to produce numerous, useful developments in technology, as well as, in science, and in all other fields like in economics, and political science. As it follows, since it has become so essential for humankind to further their knowledge, it has also become essential for us to enhance and improve the processes or methods of conducting research or studies. Although the results obtained from research are always promising, it should also be noted that they are not usually reliable or valid as they are usually marred with biases and errors. This paper will investigate the statement by Griffiths in 1998 that there really is no hope of ever conducting a research that is perfect.

I concur with the proclamation that there is no hope of conducting a study or research that is perfect. Research as the name suggests is a term used to refer to the process of searching for something that has not been found or completed. This something might be used to mean a concept, an idea or a theory (Shuttleworth). In any case, experimental activities are usually depended on trial and error processes or methods, and, as a result, are prone to numerous errors. Just the same, logical processes and logical reasoning, for instance, deduction and induction play some major roles in activities related to research, but it is also beyond doubt that logic is produced by human minds that are different in reasoning and intelligence, as it follows; such processes invite numerous flaws to the results of a research.

One experiment that has been conducted over and over again has to do with the benefits of eating fish constantly, and their relation to reduction of heart disease. Many of the studies that have been conducted on the same have indicated that individuals who consume large amounts of marine fish have lowered chances of getting heart disease. One of the loads of surveys that have been conducted on the relationship between eating fish and reduction in heart diseases includes a study carried out by Kris- Etherton and colleagues. They conducted at least three epidemiological studies within certain populations and found out that men who consumed at least a fish each week reduced their chances of getting coronary heart disease significantly. They also found that these men had reduced mortality as a result of heart disease than those individuals who did not consume any fish (Penny et al 1024- 1025).

However, another group of researchers did the same research but came up with conflicting results. They found that there was no evidence linking the reduction of coronary heart diseases, and associated mortality with intake of fish. Ascherio and colleagues, for instance, commented that there was no known relationship between intake of fish and coronary heart diseases, in a research they conducted in the follow- up study of health professionals (Martijn 1024- 1025).

These variations in the results researchers get in the same study are what make people like Griffiths doubt whether a perfect research will ever be realized. If there were hope of ever having a perfect research, then this trend of having varying results would not be experienced, and it has already been noticed any fresh research or study usually ends up adding some new information to a research that had previously been done.

Works cited

Martijn, Katan B. ‘Fish and Heart Disease’. The New England Journal of Medicine. 332 (1995):1024-1025. Print.

Penny, Kris-Etherton M. Et al. ‘Fish Consumption, Fish Oil, Omega-3 Fatty Acids, and Cardiovascular Disease.’ American Heart Association, Inc. 106 (2002): 2747-2757. Print

Shuttleworth, Martyn. ‘Definition of Research’. Experiment Resources, 2008. Web. 9 September 2011. http://www.experiment-resources.com/definition-of-research.html

There is no hope of doing perfect research (Griffiths, 1998, p97), looking at a research that has been done by several resear

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There is no hope of doing perfect research (Griffiths, 1998, p97), looking at a research that has been done by several researchers to lead to different results.

What is research? Research is the process of discovering, or finding something that has not been found or discovered before. It is the process that usually gives answers to questions individuals have on something and; therefore, research is a process that is continuous. There is only one thing that can be compared to research, and that is technological innovations. Think about it; today we have a mobile phone that is deemed perfect, tomorrow another cell phone is innovated that seems perfect that the latter. Computers are the same too, today we have a perfect computer and tomorrow it is eliminated from the race by another perfect computer. So yes, I agree with Griffiths when he argues that there is no hope of ever attaining a research that is perfect. This paper will explore this argument further by looking at a research that has been done by several researchers to lead to different results.

To assert the point that research can never be perfect, it is essential to look at a study that was carried out by a number of researchers to come up with disagreeing facts. An example of search a study is the one on the causes of acne. Acne has been indicated to be as a result of a number of factors. Some researchers argue that it is genetic while other argues that it is cause by lifestyle. A study carried out by Hyde indicates that acne can be caused by the consumption of fats that are high in fats. The reason why the researcher thought fatty foods could result to acne was because he thought that fatty foods create instability in blood sugar because of the fact that fatty foods make blood sugar increase extremely quickly and reduce at the same rate. This rapid change in the blood sugar levels, according to the researcher, led to severe changes and reactions of body hormones, something that eventually led to acne. The article also argued that foods high in fats slow down the transport of oxygen, as well as, nutrients into the cell, increasing chances of developing acne (Hyde 1).

Rudis published another article that gave an entirely different argument about the causes of acne. She was of the idea that the causes of acne are based on genetics, and that other factor such as changes in the levels of hormones, bacteria, and overactive oil glands complemented the genetics aspect. This study implied that acne has nothing to do with the consumption of fatty foods or blood sugar as the first article had implied that acne is caused by the interplay of numerous factors, all which had nothing to do with the factors the previously reviewed article had mentioned (Rudis 1).

The two articles reviewed above further and confirm the claim by Griffiths that research can never be perfect. If research were perfect, then it would be expected that any study carried out on the same subject should obtain similar results or outcomes. Rather, most of the surveys that have been carried out indicate that different studies by different researchers obtain different results and outcomes. As it follows, it is clear from the above examples that Griffiths was correct when he claimed that research is not perfect, and there is no hope of ever conducting a perfect research.

References

Hyde, Daniel. ‘Foods that Cause Acne: Fact or Fiction.’ Buzzle.com. 8. Web. 12 September 2011.

Rudis, Jacquelyn. ‘True or False: Eating Chocolate (or Other Fatty Foods) Causes Acne.’ Healthlibrary.epnet.com (Health Library Army Medical Center) EBSCO, 2010. Web12 September 2011.

Technology Is Making Communication Easier In Today’s World, But At The Expense Of Personal Contact

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Technology Is Making Communication Easier In Today’s World, But At The Expense Of Personal Contact

Technology has brought about a revolutionary change in the way individuals communicate. As more and more nations progress through the age of information, a number of technological devices like hand phones, television and personal computers have come up and even established themselves a stronghold in the daily lives of many people. As it follows, this has without a doubt influenced the traditional interpersonal interaction and communication in numerous ways that are both positive and negative. This paper, therefore, looks at some of the implications and effects of communication technology on the ways individuals interact with each other.

With the invention of the Internet, the world has been turned into a global village that is highly interconnected. Individuals from different areas all over the world are able to converse easily with each other through such things as twitter and Facebook. Just as well, email has also established itself as a free, fast and convenient method to communicate and has, as a result, replaced the traditional mail. The Internet has made it tremendously handy and simple for people to communicate with each other.

However, the communication ease that technology has brought is not without implications. The Internet, for instance, have extremely changed the way individuals socialize and interact with each other. Although this in a way helps individuals broaden their social circle, people and even couples are unable to interact with each other personally with numerous negative implications. Each individual, for example, is only able to access the information the other is willing to release. This can lead to development of such vices as lying, and can even lead to people to mislead others to have unrealistic expectations of other people. These negative implications are not only affecting personal relationships, but also those in the office. ‘Simple messages which used to be delivered face- to- face are now being sent through impersonal means such as email’ (Nah 1).

Other effects are on the interpersonal relationships children used to form with their friends. Children actually used to talk to their peers. However, those hours, which these children and teens used to have in the neighborhoods personally chatting with their friends, have long vanished. Nevertheless, today, even chatting on e- mail or cell phones, through which teens can chat in paragraphs, is old fashioned. For the current preteens and teenagers, ‘the give and take of friendship seems to be conducted increasingly in the abbreviated snatches of cell phone texts and instant messages, or through the very public forum of Facebook and MySpace bulletins’ (Stout 1).

According to a review conducted by an industry trade group, the period between June 2010 and June 2009, subscribers of cell phones sent about 1.8 trillion text messages. This was considered a 33 percent increase from the previous year. This is to mean that most people are spending their days walking around and spending most of their days with their noses deeply buried in their cell phones. As it follows, by doing this, ‘we are tuning put the people who are actually in the same room as us. We seem to have long ago crossed the line as to where doing this stuff is appropriate- people take calls while they are out to dinner, text or check e- mail while on a date, you name it’ (Cafferty 1).

These are clear indications that we all need to take a step back and reassess our dependency on technology for communicating, which is clearly making a large percentage of humanity antisocial.

Works cited

Cafferty, Jack. ‘Technology Replacing Personal Interactions at What Cost?’ Cafferty File. CNN. Web 13 January 2012.

Nah, Wenbin. Technology’s Effect in Interpersonal Communication. Better Interpersonal Communication. Web 13 January 2012.

Stout, Hilary. ‘Antisocial Networking?’ The New York Times. Web. 13 January 2012.

Tata Motors Speed Breakers Galore

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Tata Motors- Speed Breakers Galore

The year 2008 was considered a milestone in Tata Motors history. In early 2008, the company had unveiled a plan that was supposed to further the company’s fortunes; little did they know that the plan was the beginning of their most significant financial problems. The company had unveiled the cheapest car in the world that was going at a price of 100, 000 rupees. Tata Motors followed this with the acquisition of two other brands, the Jaguar and Land rover brands. As already mentioned, this strategy did not transform the Tata Company, as it was initially thought. This paper, hence, is an analysis of the rapid reversals of the Tata Motors’ fortunes that took place in between early 2008 and March 2009. The paper will show how the company’s fortune was affected the frozen global credit lines that affected India’s economy and that of the Indian automakers largely.

Tata Motors was started in the year 1945 under the name TELCO, Tata Engineering and Locomotive Company Limited. The company’s main aim was to manufacture products in engineering, as well as, locomotives. The company made its first commercial vehicles in 1954 when it entered into a contract with Daimler Benz AG to manufacture commercial vehicles for the company. By 1961, the company had begun manufacturing its own commercial vehicles, which were first sold to Sri Lanka. The Company set up a research center in Pune in 1977. It was in 1983 when the company manufactured its first heavy commercial vehicle. In 1985, the company collaborated with Hitachi to manufacture the first hydraulic excavator; the manufacture of the first indigenously produced automobile, the Tata 407, commenced in 1986. In the following years, the company introduced its indigenously manufactured passenger cars. In 2002, the Tata Indigo and Indica were unveiled.

The company also started selling the MG Rover; a UK brand for the manufacturing company in the UK. In 2003, the company unveiled a new name Tata Motors. In 2004, the company bought Daewoo Commercial Vehicles Company. The company continued to sign other deals with other companies like Fiat India automobiles, Fiat Group 8, and Fiat Auto. The company marketed its products in numerous countries like Kenya, Malaysia, Ukraine, Senegal, and Russia. The company attained an excellent reputation, as it began to work with prestige car manufacturers like Porsche, Chrysler and Volkswagen. The Tata team was also highly skilled and talented. The company’s goal was to establish itself as a major automobile manufacturer in India and in the international market through acquisitions and mergers. It was in this light that the company acquired the JLR from Ford.

The company’s rationale for acquiring these new brands was;

To enable the company to penetrate the luxury car and premium all terrain market,

To improve the company’s strength in the global market,

To strengthen the company’s product and technological development and innovation abilities to address issues brought about by changing trends in the market,

To share the best quality assurance and manufacturing processes and systems, to enhance the company’s managerial and human capital talent,

And to increase the company’s operational synergies

The acquisition of the British brands from the Ford Company by the Tata Motors did not transform the profits of the company as the chairman had expected. It was thought that this overturn of events was triggered by the global financial crisis that caused the demand of automobiles to decrease. The decreased demand impacted Tata Motors, business wise, and especially when it came to the success of the newly acquired brands. The picture that the financial position of the company presented at the end of the financial year also gave little hope. It was during this financial year that the company had reported its first loss in more than 8 years. As compared to the last year’s profit of about Rs. 741. 51 billion, the company’s loss in 2008 f 25. 05 billion rupees was tremendous.

The situation continued into the next financial year’s first quarter. In June 2009, the company reported that had acquired a net loss of 3. 29 billion rupees on the 169. 54 billion rupees of revenue it had acquired in the first quarter of the 2009 financial year. The company thought that this loss had been attributed by the fallen sales of the newly acquired brands, whose volume in sales had decreased by 52 percent when compared to those acquired in the previous year. The loss that the JLR brands registered alone was put at 8.73 billion rupees, with the main markets for the brands decreasing significantly.

While the company suffered from these unexpected losses, it also reeled under the huge burden of the large debt it had acquired during the acquisition of the JLR. The total loan was about 3 billion US dollars, and the company had only managed to pay 2 thirds of the loan. The plans of the company to secure funds to refinance this loan had been ruined by the financial crisis. This was because the company’s share price had significantly dropped causing the failure of the rights issues that was supposed to secure enough funds for refinancing the loans. Eventually, the promoters had to subscribe since other shareholders shied away from the rights issues. Later, the company had to raise the required finances through schemes on fixed deposit that were issued to the public and offered to the private placement of NCDs, non- convertible debentures, at an interest rate that was high.

The company also faced serious setbacks with the Nano. The company experienced challenges in launching the new car when the farmers around the manufacturing plant of the Nano brought forth complications which made the company move its plant to another area. The agitation was supported by some political forces, and it was difficult to ignore the agitation. The company, thus, experienced delays in the launch of the new car, as it would take some longer time, about a year, to launch the car from the new location. Further some industry experts expressed doubts on the success and profitability of the launch. They were concerned that the company, with the current issues in finance, was not in a position to manufacture and sell such large volumes.

As it was, the company’s chairman had a tough task of making Tata Motors profitable once more. The company had three main challenges to address; they had to turn the performance of the new brands around, the company also had to refinance the remaining loan, and it had to make the Nano project successful and profitable.

What did the problems the company was facing mean? It was thought that the company had made a bad move in acquiring two new brands at a time when the financial crisis had affected much of the spending capabilities of customers all over the world. Credit availability was, therefore, significantly affected, and the price of credit also increased. As a result, the demand for automobiles was affected, and it plummeted considerably across the world. This, in turn, largely affected the finances and operations of the company, and specifically the performances of the newly acquired brands.

The decreased sale volumes of the JLR also caused the company considerable amount of problems. By September of 2008, the total sales of the new brands dropped by about 11.4 percent as compared to the sales volumes of the previous year. The land rover was shown to have fallen sales of not less than 19.1 percent. The sales volume of Jaguar, however, increased by 17.5 percent. The company’s anticipation that the new brands would generate enough capital for the company to finance internal working capital was not realized. The company had to acquire funds from external sources in forms of loans. The company also had to cut workers. Others were given compulsory leave with a percentage of their salaries. The company’s troubles with finance did not make the matters any easier. The company had raised a total of 3 billion dollars in loan during the acquisition of the JLR. The company was struggling to make payments of the loan as it had launched a rights issue that failed to pick. In the end, the promoters of the issues had to bid on it as the shareholders did not respond well to the offer.

Conclusion

By mid 2009, the financial position of the company had deteriorated so much that the company had cut and dropped numerous workers to make ends meet. All in all, the chairman expressed great optimism that the company would recover in time.

Summary of Shakespeare in the Bush by Laura Bohannan

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Summary of Shakespeare in the Bush by Laura Bohannan

The author is an American anthropologist who visits an African tribe named the Tiv. During her visit, she takes a copy of Shakespeare’s book the Hamlet with to prove that the points illustrated in the book are universal and that anyone can understand them with a little help. The tribe she visits spends a lot of their time narrating stories and drinking, something, which is according to their culture. The author is, as well, supposed to narrate stories, but she is nervous about narrating the Hamlet story to them despite the fact that the tribe is exceedingly eager to hear the stories. While telling the story, they keep on interrupting her because they think they know the meaning of the story more than she does. To them, it is hard to understand certain concepts like drowning because water to them is good, and they only know of zombies not ghosts. The point of the book is that the story in Hamlet loses its meaning in Africa because of the different points of view they have of the central concepts. The author later learns that values and concepts are not universal as different cultures have different interpretations to different concepts according to the values they hold (Bohannan 28- 33).

Summary of Japanese Mothers and Obentos by Anne Allison

In this article, Anne talks of the importance and culture of the obento, which has its origins in Japan. She spent a year making obentos for her son while in Japan and through this she learned a lot about the social rules and structure of the Japanese. An obento is a small lunchbox made for preschool children by their mothers every day. It is made with variety and creativity. The mothers put a lot of care and artistic element into these obentos. In a culture where obedience and structure is observed, the teacher of the child then scrutinizes the obento, and their success in school depends on their ability to finish their obento cleanly and quickly. Each obento is constructed with each part apart from others and with excellent balance. The emphasis on the design emphasizes on the presence of food’s nature. The obento, therefore, is extremely crucial, as a way to prepare the children to do well in school (Allison 195- 208).

What is the political issue about space in the Nationalist Rhetoric of the Hellenic Republic and The Republic of Macedonia? 

Since the end of the roman era, Macedonia was never identified with constant and specific geographical and administrative borders. It was only later in the nineteenth century when the title Macedonia was used to refer to the region of three Ottoman provinces. By this time, the area had become a cause of disagreement among numerous nationalities of the Balkan origin. Nations were fighting to take over this area and expand its borders for economic success and political powers. By early twentieth century, the term Macedonia was broadly accepted as the geographical indication for the area, which more or less was comprised of the three Ottoman provinces. During this time, Macedonia did not have an administrative or an ethnic connotation, but a geographical one. This situation made it possible for others to try to take this space away from the original dwellers. As a result, of the 1912- 13 Balkan wars, the area became liberated from Ottoman leadership. The three allies who had fought for this liberation shared parts of the area (Peckham 59- 67).

What are the political implications of space for indigenous people? 

In a study carried out in 2008, Ajala observed that space performs four main roles in indigenous communities: communication, consumption, settlement and security. All these functions, according to the study are commonly shown in the political values usually related to space. He further argued that construction of space is different in different cultures. As it follows, the different perspectives on space are based on the attitude of a group to space, access to that space and their interaction with the space as a resource of political dominance and power. The concept of space plays a crucial role in negotiations of power and decision (Alfred 34- 45).

In socio- political organizations, space is established in a categorization of women and men in a socio- political structure, which has effects and influences on their access to power. In this case, it is conceptualized as the method of claiming power or a right to make decisions, or question the resolutions and decisions that have the potential to exclude the group or individual or affect their life. Power gives an individual or a group the ability to cause others to obey and do as directed by the individual. Power can be exercised through a number of ways. In an indigenous society, therefore, power obtained from space can mean that the indigenous people will do as directed by their political leaders to maintain their space and its four functions (Alfred 34- 45).

Explain how time can be a cosmology and what is a cosmology?

In anthropology a cosmology is a construct of analysis, as well as, an object of study that can be defined as a set of beliefs, knowledge, practices and interpretations of a culture or society related to explanations about the evolution and origins of the universe and the meaning and role of life, human and the world within the cosmos. A cosmology, therefore, includes an explanation of the past, future and present of a culture and these explanations are part of comprehending the cosmo-eco-ethnogenesis, and it has to do with the origins and the destiny, as well as, the finality of humans and other existence forms. In anthropology cosmology, therefore, is used to mean the set of beliefs, knowledge, practices and interpretations and the set of overarching behavioral templates and cognitive templates, which are transformed and utilized by a society to understand, interpret and explain its functions and roles within the world, life and the general cosmos (Reichel-Dolmatoff 307- 18).

Using these definitions of cosmology one can argue that time can be a cosmology. This is because time can be taken as an analytical construct or an object of study when it comes to studying different periods of the human society from the evolution periods to the modern times. Time can be used to explain the different practices of a society and their periods, and how they relate to different trends in the human history. As it follows, time is a cosmology as it can be studied like other analytical constructs in anthropology (Reichel-Dolmatoff 307- 18).

Work cited

Alfred, T. Peace Power Righteousness: An Indigenous Manifesto. Oxford University Press, 1999. Print.

Allison, A. ‘Japanese Mothers and Obentos: The Lunch-Box as Ideological State Apparatus’.Anthropological Quarterly, 64. 4 (1991):195-208. Print.

Bohannan, L. ‘Shakespeare in the Bush. An American anthropologist set out to study the Tiv of West Africa and was taught the true meaning of Hamlet’. Natural History 75 (1996): 28–33. Print.

Peckham, S. National histories, natural states: Nationalism and the politics of place in Greece. London: I.B. Tauris, 2001. Print.

Reichel-Dolmatoff, Gerardo. ‘Cosmology as Ecological Analysis: A View from the Rainforest. The Huxley Memorial Lecture’. MAN. 11.3 (1976): 307-18. Print.

Rodrick, Dani 2011 The Globalization Paradox Democracy and the Future of the World Economy

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Rodrick, Dani 2011 “The Globalization Paradox: Democracy and the Future of the World Economy”

The research question of the work of the author revolves around the paradox of globalization. He argues that the ultimate globalization paradox is that which works best when pushed slightly. According to the author, individuals must witness the new arrangements in global economies that are based on deliberation of the populations where it is present, and that is within nations. The author argues that economists have, for years, driven forward the globalization cause in financial institutions, trade and labor markets. Yet, consistent warning signs have indicated that this might not always be beneficial. Although globalization of the economy has driven unprecedented prosperity levels in developed countries, and is not beneficial at all for millions of poorly paid workers in Asia the author shows the concept to be unstable and resting on shaky pillars. The main argument of the author is that nations cannot pursue democracy simultaneously, economic globalization and national self- determination. He argues that protectionism will result if we allow governments too much power, and that unstable economy of the world with little political and social support will result if we give too much freedom to the markets. His main arguments are not for maximum globalization but smart globalization.

There are a number of variables that the author uses to argue his point. There are both independent and dependent variables. An example of a dependent variable in the text is markets. He argues that markets have to be coterminous with the institutions of regulation and governance that govern them. The market is, therefore, dependent on such things as governance and regulation. It is also dependent on the scope of workable. He emphasizes that markets are institutions that need support of other institutions that are non- market. His argument is that any type of long- distance market needs a non- market organization to develop it. Markets are not self- regulating, self- creating, not self- stabilizing and not self- legitimizing.

In this case, the author shows governance as an independent variable. He argues that the main idea behind legitimate governance today is the notion of the nation state. The modes and institutions of governance are independent because they are the ones that influence other variables like markets. Globalization is another notion in the text that a reader can take as an independent variable. It is an independent variable because, just like governance, it regulates and limits certain functions in the nation state, trade, and rules and regulations governing trade.

Rodrik’s hypothesis seems to be that hyperglobalization is today’s enemy of the world, and that nations have to address it to promote social concerns diversity across all of the world’s democracies. His conclusions are that we have to contend with an economy of the world that is a patchwork when it comes to governance. He argues that we run the risk of running into two risks if we do not get this balance right. The risk of legitimacy deficit is one possible risk if we push global rules too much. Instability and inefficiency is another possible risk that might occur if we push global markets too far. He concludes that recognizing and acknowledging the centrality of the nation is more likely to lead to an economy of the world that is healthy than trying to damage it.

The text is based on both qualitative and quantitative data to examine the social global and national trends that determine the paradox of globalization. The author, for example, carries out a number of surveys from which he derives a number of quantitative and qualitative data, which he uses to support and base his central arguments. The evidence plays a big role in his formulation of the main arguments he makes about globalization, governance, and several other trends in several state nations.

In presenting their ideas, the author is able to bring forth a number of theoretical frameworks. Some of these include globalization, institutionalism and liberalism. In the text, he criticizes globalization enthusiasts who are unalloyed, particularly focusing on their desire to liberalize capital movements and foreign trade fully. While acknowledging and showing the fact that extensive engagement with the economy of the world can lead to raised material living standards, the author worries that the unintended impacts might lead to unnecessary and even unwanted social distress. He is also not so happy about by the empirical casualness of the points and arguments advanced in liberalization support. He argues that there are numerous ways to development, and societies that are democratic should be freed to practice their collective preferences without having the policy and institutional preferences of outsiders imposed on them.

Unfortunately, the author does not apply the same thoroughness and scrutiny to how democracies make their decisions, which he does to the other arguments in the book like the one that concerns different ways to the development. He also argues that, as a forecaster, he is limited. He is unable to predict a number of financial crises. It also seems that the author is on unfamiliar grounds when discussing international finance. In conclusion, the author gives a number of recommendations. For instance, he points out that state nations should focus on global rules that improve their domestic deliberation quality. Further, he advises that state nations should legitimize national disparities in regulatory bodies, subject to safeguards of procedures that ensure deliberation that is high- quality.

Work cited

Rodrick, Dani. The Globalization Paradox: Democracy and the Future of the World Economy. W. W. Norton & Co., 2011. Print.

Review of the Time Machine by Wells, H.G

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Review of the Time Machine by Wells, H.G

The Time Machine is a 1895 novella published by H.G. Wells and its main theme is science fiction. The book was later adapted into a movie titled the same as the novella, as well as a significant number of adaptations into comic books and television versions. The novella was one of the first fiction works and, as it follows, it inspired a new trend in the literature world and in the media. The story only has about 32, 000 words and is generally based on the popularization of the notion of time travel through the use of some machine that allows the traveler to travel selectively and with purpose. This paper will review this novella and look at its main ideas and how they influenced the significant following and audience the novella has. Finally, the paper will provide thoughts as to why the book is interesting to the audience and readers.

This novella tells of a story of a man, who the author only refers to the Time traveler, who invents a machine that travels through time, which allows him to travel to such years as 802, 701. In this year, the Time Traveler finds that humanity has evolved into two different species- the Morlocks and the Eloi. As it seems to the Traveler, the Eloi generation seems to live a wonderful life without difficulties and filled with the pleasure. However, as the traveler finds out, these species do not have anything to work hard for as they want for nothing, and, as a result, the generation has lost their power of intelligent thought. On the other hand, the other generation seems to be surrounded by some darker reality. The Morlocks scare the Eloi as they only come out in the darkness.

Wells addresses a number of themes in this book. There are two main themes evident in the story. The most significant theme questions the notion that many individuals thought at the end of the nineteenth century, and continue to think today, that the human race will keep on progressing and that advancement and improvements in culture and society is a sure thing. Though one might consider this story optimistic at some levels, Wells in his realistic display of what might be the case in regards to science, the story is exceedingly pessimistic, giving a warning of the unthinking and unfettered trust in improvement and advancement, otherwise or scientific. Another essential theme has to do with the display of the danger capitalism can bring to a society, and how harmful it is to employees, as it is evident from the association made by the traveler among the Morlocks and the late nineteenth century workers and the Eloi species and the aristocracy in London. The novel indicates that the aristocrats do not have their power assured and that they might not be in control in the twentieth century as long as they keep on mistreating the other people. The overthrow of hierarchy is shown not to have resulted from an overthrow revolution, but via changes that were gradual, but with similar impacts, for in the final days of the human race there is no shelter from the predatory temperament of the past workers.

The way these themes are put together makes this book worth reading, and the fact that these major themes are still valid 100 or so years later. The discrepancy between the beautiful, leisured and uncaring human race, Eloi and the Morlocks who are brutal but mechanically inventive could easily be compared with the differences in commerce and art in the current world. And, of course, with the unrelenting threat of climate change and scenarios of extinction currently being rumored, the thought of an ending world id never too far away from the educated and civilized twenty first individuals. However, just a work of fiction, the book is thoroughly entertaining and enjoyable, and it is exceedingly recommendable.

Review of Founding Brothers. A Revolutionary Generation

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Review of Founding Brothers: A Revolutionary Generation

What one discovers after reading this book are the six in- depth studies about certain events and relationships that took place or happened to the founding revolutionaries after the end of the war and after the establishment of the new governing body. The men involved realized that they were part of something extraordinary and also realized that their memories would live throughout the American history. The author points out in the first section of the book that these men usually took such stances because they knew by doing so they will be remembered throughout history. The book gives more and close attention to such history makers as Aaron Burr, Abigail and John Adams, Alexander Hamilton, Thomas Jefferson, George Washington and James Madison. Further, the author describes in detail the issue of slavery was looming like a dark cloud over the founding of the American nation and how it was hidden and put away to pave way for the development of the new government.

These people knew that the issue of slavery could not be easily ignored, and they also knew that findings solutions and answers to the issue when the nation was forming its first governing body would not be ideal as it would split the country right in the middle. The author examines other political issues that became apparent at that time; for example, he looks at the financial plan developed by Hamilton to help the new economy flourish and the issue of where the permanent national seat was located. What one realizes and sees through the numerous war skirmishes described in the book are the struggles the nation went through in the period between the 1780s and 90s, both in the internal and the international fronts. The paper, therefore, will look at the main thesis of the book that becomes more apparent as the author describes the historical events that took place during this time.

The thesis of the author in this case seems to be that all of the founding fathers of the American nation were equally significant and each of them brought to the table a different set of ideas and skills that were useful in building the great nation. That they succeeded because they worked together so that we can view them as brothers rather than founding fathers. There are several supporting pieces of evidence that indicate that this is the thesis Ellis wanted to put across. For example he organizes the book in a set of segments, long ones though. For example, there is the segment on the duel between Burr and Hamilton and the consequences and implications of this duel. There is also another vignette about Adams and Jefferson letters that came during that time, another segment on the deal that conspired to bring and locate the capitol in DC, and another on non- discussions and discussions of the issue of slavery.

It is clear from the w hat these segments are arranged, and described, that the fathers were intended to be shown more of quarreling brothers rather than founding fathers, and it is quite clear that the author was impressed and held high regards of the individuals, and their ‘unity’ in working together t establish the American nation. To a limited extent, the author’s thesis that the founding fathers where more of brothers- in thought, philosophy, devotion to the new nation and revolution- is an appropriate semantic observation. What the author presents in the book are the numerous rivalries that exist between the founders, just like between siblings, as the founders in this period clashed and quarreled over what the revolution itself, the constitution and the nation meant twenty or so years later.

Generally, the founding fathers did not agree with most things, and to argue that they had any particular plan in mind when they came up with the constitution would underscore the facts laid down by history. Not only did they disagree on almost everything, most of them hated each other. For example, there was a major falling out between Washington and Jefferson, which led to them not speaking to each other. Also, Adams hated Hamilton with an intensity that is hard to understand. Madison was of the idea that Adams was a traitor to the American Revolution, and Hamilton and Burr eventually resulted to a duel. The author’s thesis comes apparent once more at this juncture. He explains that during most revolutions those who are quarreling or disagreeing about something usually lay aside their disagreement, and differences for them to combine forces and be able to overcome or overthrow some force that is oppressive or not popular with the regime. The author, however, points out that old differences and disagreements arise with a renewed abandon and in most cases usually result to violence that is horrific, after the revolution has been successful.

The brotherly rivalry that existed among the founding fathers is further asserted by the question the author puts across of how such a huge nation was able to survive its first 10 years. There was no nation that had ever tried or used the republican government to such a large scale, and the author indicates that the stage was set against the success of the newly founded nation and American government. prior to this experience, the thirteen American states had no history of cooperation that was sustained and, even though America had numerous resources, bringing them together and making it possible for these diverse groups of people who did not always agree on anything or get along to cooperate and work together was formidable.

For the author, it was the leadership that the founding fathers offered the nation that helped the American nation to overcome all of the challenges it faced. In his book, he points out that, ‘…..the revolutionary generation found a way to contain the explosive energies of the debate (over the role of the central government) in the form of an ongoing argument or dialogue that was eventually institutionalized and rendered safe by the creation of political parties….’ (Ellis 15). According to the author, there were four key factors that helped the nation survive its first ten years, through the founding fathers. These elements apparently were the ones that helped congeal the new American nation into a real nation rather than a mere experimentation by the republicans.

The first key factor was the men’s personalities. It is indicated that these personalities helped serve as a system of balances and checks, taken together in all the personality differences and diversities. The second element was that they all were familiar with each other and were at times surprisingly intimate. The third element or factor that is thought to have been significant is that they had mastered the ability to avoid real debates and discussions about the issues of slavery. This issue was solely capable of charging forces that could destroy the union, and thus the young nation. The fourth factor was that the founding fathers were aware of their responsibilities and roles and needed the experiment to work as planned as they knew that the whole world was watching. These are just a few pointers that indicate and assert that the founding fathers were as diverse in their personalities, thoughts, and actions as real brothers and they did not work as a monolithic body as many would have us believe, they were just as diverse in character as the American people the represented.

These are more than enough supporting pieces of evidence that point to the diversity of the founding fathers, and to the thesis of the book that the founding fathers should be treated more as brothers who worked together for the good of the nation and for the stability of the young nation, rather than founding fathers whose ideologies and characters were unified. As it is, the founding fathers were diverse and different and they only put aside their disagreements for the sake of winning the revolution and for the sake of supporting the establishment of the new governing body.

References

Ellis, Joseph J. Founding Brothers: A Revolutionary Generation. New York: Viking, 2002. Print