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Interest Articulation and Interest Aggregation in Iran

Interest Articulation and Interest Aggregation in Iran

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Interest Articulation and Interest Aggregation in Iran

Iran, also known as The Islamic Republic of Iran and historical known as Persia, is a country located in Asia’s western part (Tabaar, 2018). The country’s total geographical coverage is estimated to be around 1.6 million kilometres squared and a population of approximately 83 million. The capital city is Tehran and Iran happens to be the biggest country in the Middle East countries. The leadership in Iran has been authoritative, limiting the citizens their civil, human and political rights. A country where the governed are allowed to practice their democratic rights is likely to do well in both interest articulation and interest aggregation. In this essay, the state of interest articulation and interest aggregation and the factors affecting them in Iran will be discussed.

Interest articulation is how the citizens of a country express their grievances to the governing body. The participation can be having personal contact with government leaders to form interest groups where the government officials act as per the interest of the groups they represent. An example of this interest group is professional associations. Interest articulation has different ways to affect the government and can be associated with either legal activities like peaceful demonstrations or illegal activities like assassinations. It is through interest articulation where a country achieves interest aggregation.

Iran is one of the world’s leading countries where there is no freedom of the press (Semati, M. (2017). According to the press freedom index of the year 2018, Iran was at the 168th position in 180 countries ranked. The government department in Iran responsible for communications and information is the Ministry Of Culture And Islamic Guidance. When a country has limited access to media, it is nearly impossible for them to express their needs to the government, thus limiting interest aggregation.

In Iran, television was introduced in 1958, and the only media corporation has been given the freedom to information and communication while any domestic media body was restricted after the revolution. Despite the restrictions, over half of Iran’s population has access to worldwide media corporations through satellites. The use of the internet has widely spread in Iran and Google search is the leading search engine, and Instagram is the most used social application. Other social applications like Twitter and Facebook remain restricted for use by Iran’s citizens because they have been used to form groups to oppose the government.

The citizens of Iran are given the power to elect their leaders, and the electoral system is majoritarian, where the one with the most votes is declared the leader. According to Election Guide an election news platform, Iran’s voter turnout has consistently been above average of the total registered voters despite the year 2008 where the voter turnout was 49%. The head of government, the legislature and the assembly of experts in Iran are elected at a national level. The citizens are allowed to select the head of government, while the assembly of experts is responsible for voting in the supreme leader.

In Iran, there are no major interest groups because of the authoritative governance. Interest groups are formed to influence public policies in their favour. These interest groups are characterized by showing the desire to control government policies for their members’ benefit. Interest groups’ existence is essential for every country because they advocate for various segments in the society like government subsidies. Through these interest groups, citizens express their needs; thus, the interest group puts pressure on policymakers, thus gaining positive policy outcomes.

Iran achieving interest articulation remains a significant challenge to the country. Unless the authoritarian type of leadership changes, the country’s citizens will remain under the governing body’s control. Because of this kind of leadership, Iran has faced several sanctions from many countries of the world. The sanctions have affected the economy of the country, making it hard for the citizens of Iran. The government should allow citizens to have freedom of expression and freely practice their democratic rights. Civil society in Iran is existent, but it remains under pressure because of the government’s various restrictions. Civil society ranges from non-governmental organizations to independent labour unions to women rights to environmental rights organizations. The civil society in Iran has highly developed because of the reform movement, making it vital in being about change than other counterparts in the Middle East. Experts have given an estimate of between five thousand to eight thousand non-governmental organizations present in Iran. Social capital is achieved when various groups come together to work towards set objectives. Social money in Iraq remains paralyzed because of the ignorant leaders. Interest aggregation can be explained as the process where the interests of various individuals and groups are implemented in policy programs. Below are the factors that influence interest aggregation.

Based on Reuters’ report, a news agency in February 2018, Iran had over 250 registered political parties, meaning that the political party system in Iran is a multi-party system (Harris, 2017). The political party system of Iran is considered authoritarian. An authoritarian administration can be explained as a type of leadership where the body in charge has total control over whom they govern. In this kind of leadership, the governing body pays more attention to people obeying laws than people having freedom of expression.

The citizens of Iran have no freedom to participate in the country’s political affairs, which is limited interest aggregation and interest articulation in Iran. The authoritarian leadership in Iran has received many critics from all over the globe because of abusing civil liberty and human rights. The leadership in this country has been characterized by limiting children and women’s rights, suppressing mass protests and unfair elections. The voting age was from 15years until 2007, when the age was raised to 18 years. The election system is majority based where the one with the leading votes leads. Patron –client relationship is a structure where an authoritative figure gives benefits to their supporters for being loyal to the group (Ladwig, 2017). When people form a group, they usually have specific goals that they want to achieve, which makes the patron-client relationship important. Since most patron-client organizations impact the formation of government policies, this relationship needs to end.

Iran has two military forces, including the national military and the Islamic revolutionary guard corps. The national militia is responsible for ensuring peace and protecting the borders, while the Islamic revolutionary militia is responsible for protecting the revolution and its achievements. Patron-client networks in Iran are very high, making it hard to unify political resources to solve any crisis because of the different political structures formed. The formation of many political structures makes it hard to achieve interest aggregation. The interest aggregation in Iran remains crippled, and this calls for improvements. The political culture of Iran has to change from being authoritative to being democratic. A country that is democratic is likely to be more unified than one that the leaders dictate on what is to be done. A country that respects democracy will work by the will of the people they govern hence no violation of human rights. The formation of many political structures in Iran makes it had to achieve interest aggregation because the different political systems bring about division in the country.

References

Harris, K. (2017). A social revolution: Politics and the welfare state in Iran. Univ of California Press.

Ladwig, W. C. (2017). The forgotten front: Patron-client relationships in counter insurgency. Cambridge University Press.

Semati, M. (2017). Iran, media and the discourse of human rights. The Routledge companion to media and human rights, 158.

Tabaar, M. A. (2018). Religious statecraft: The politics of Islam in Iran. Columbia University Press.

Interdisciplinary research process

Interdisciplinary research process

The interdisciplinary research process is a textbook that offers a comprehensive treatment of the interdisciplinary research process for the interdisciplinary graduate students who are writing about the theses and dissertations as well as advanced undergraduate students writing about capstone projects. The author Allen Repko offers the most concise and guided resource on the most commonly allowed interdisciplinary studies as well as the principles as outlined in the research process. The text covers topics such as deciding how to choose disciplines which are relevant to the problem or the topic .other topics includes dealing with disciplinary and ideological bias, making explicit the rationale for taking an interdisciplinary approach and choosing research methods appropriately according to the topic or the topic under study. This text is useful to advanced undergraduate and graduate in interdisciplinary studies courses that require research projects or cover methods of social inquiry. Programs in cultural studies, women’s studies, public administration and policy, criminology, urban affairs, evaluation and other areas which an interdisciplinary perspective is often foundational to the curriculum will find this an invaluable course resource which will bring together issues and methods of interdisciplinary in one comprehensive but manageable text.

The authors illustrate each step of the decision-making process by drawing on student and professional work from the natural sciences, humanities and applied fields which are related to it. The book is designed for active learning and problem-based approaches as well as for more traditional approaches. The book provides premier text for interdisciplinary research and advances all studies fields through its systematic treatment of the interdisciplinary research process. The book explains the interdisciplinary research as a process hence the author Repko gives students the framework which is needed to carry out valuable and forward-thinking research.

Furthermore, the book is in a way that it enables the students to think critically. Also, the book enables the students to deal with difficult problems as well as develop skills such as oral communication, public speaking, research skills, media literacy, teamwork, planning, self-sufficiency as well as goal setting that would help them prepare for disciplinary careers and adult life which includes living with one another. Also, the book provides the students with the sense that they require them to apply their skills in fields as well as to investigate issues across many different subject areas or domains of knowledge. Capstones project for example which the book provides its outline tend to encourage students to connect the projects they are undertaking to community-based issues or problems and to integrate outside of school learning experiences in activities such as interviews, scientific observations, and internships.

Interactionism and Labeling Theories

Interactionism and Labeling Theories

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Interactionism and Labeling Theories

Crime is considered a negative force in any society. There are different theories and approaches to explain crime and how to do away with it and some of these include interactionism and labeling theories. Interactionism tries to explain the link that exists between crime itself and the social forces which a person has no control over (Williams & McShane, 2018). On the other hand labeling theories view crime from the point whereby the society labels individuals are deviant and therefore commuting crimes.

Interactionism theories hold that crime is as a result of societal structures and formations like patriarchy, consensus and class. The theory brings out its arguments through feminism theory, Marxism and functionalism (Greer, & Reiner, 2014). Therefore these three theories explain how a crime can be considered a crime due to the social conventions for example under patriarchy that a woman is supposed to behave in a certain way and not the other way.

Labeling theory states that the society has the power to govern itself and they always do away with what they feel is not appropriate for them (Brownfield, & Thompson, 2008). Therefore what happens is that the society gives labels to different people who do different things which are against the social conventions in place. For example if a person steals they are labeled as thieves since stealing is a negative vice undesired in that community and society.

References

Brownfield, D., & Thompson, K. (2008). Correlates of Delinquent Identity: Testing Interactionist, Labeling, and Control Theory. International Journal of Criminal Justice Sciences, 3(1).Greer, C., & Reiner, R. (2014). Labelling, Deviance and Media.

Williams III, F.P., & McShane, M.D. (2018). Criminological theory (7th ed.). New York: Pearson.

Interaction Between Law and Mental Health

Interaction Between Law and Mental Health

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Interaction Between Law and Mental Health

Mental health and the law interact in a variety of ways, where the two continually inform and transform each other (Gopalakrishnan, 2016). To begin with, clinicians significantly impact the criminal justice system. Usually, clinicians serving in jails play a crucial role during initial bookings, where they screen and assess individuals to assist in identifying any mental health concerns. Consequently, this early assessment helps connect people to care while in jail. It also helps in determining the possibility of jail diversion. Clinicians may also offer crucial behavioral health information for an individual to the court to help inform treatment and legal decisions. Furthermore, clinicians offer evidence-based interventions through group or individual treatment while the person is in jail in order to assist them in getting ready for re-entry. Lastly, clinicians who serve in the court system provide the court with updates regarding an individual’s progress and challenges and help develop a plan to assist a person meet treatment and legal requirements to resolve their case (Kelly & Chambers, 2022).

The legislative and judicial systems influence mental health care by providing standards and a framework for protecting and promoting the rights of individuals with mental health issues. Usually, the legislative and judicial systems usually promote integrated, community-based care and support to improve the quality of services rendered to people with mental illness (Funk, & Drew, 2015). The systems also seek to prevent discrimination in insurance coverage by requiring equal coverage for mental health treatment and treatment for other illnesses. Furthermore, the legislative and judicial systems also promote confidentiality and ensure informed consent and engagement of mental health patients and their family members in the patient’s treatment plan, thus improving the quality of care rendered.

Other ways through which clinical and legal fields interact include applying clinical psychology in the forensic field. Here a forensic psychologist interacts with the defendant, assesses their mental status, and testifies before the court on the mental status of a defendant in a criminal case. The forensic psychologist also reformulates psychological findings into the courtroom’s legal language and provides information to the legal professionals in a manner that can be easily understood (Iudici et al., 2015). Also, the legislative system ensures that safe, equal, and quality healthcare services are rendered to mental health patients.

References

Funk, M. K., & Drew, N. J. (2015). Mental health policy and strategic plan. EMHJ-Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal, 21(7), 522-526.

Gopalakrishnan, G. (2016). Mental health and law-contemporary issues. Indian Journal of Psychiatry, 58(Suppl 2), S166. https://doi.org/10.4103%2F0019-5545.196802Iudici, A., Salvini, A., Faccio, E., & Castelnuovo, G. (2015). The clinical assessment in the legal field: An empirical study of bias and limitations in forensic expertise. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 1831.

Kelly, E., & Chambers, A. (2022). Embedding Clinicians in the Criminal Justice System – CSG Justice Center. Retrieved 17 August 2022, from https://csgjusticecenter.org/publications/embedding-clinicians-in-the-criminal-justice-system/

Intelligence in HSEM

Intelligence in HSEM

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Intelligence refers to the ability of intellectual functioning.U.S. intelligence has two comprehensive functions-collection and analysis-and one fairly slight one, concealed action. Through numerous means, intelligence interventions collect data about extraneous individuals, places, events, and actions that is desired by the U.S. Government but cannot be or is not easily found through publicly existing sources or political contacts. intellect analysts take info provided by maybe all three collection corrections, combine it with info from publicly available sources, and produce “all source” analysis for the customer

Example of bad intelligence

America Can’t Be Trusted AnymoreExample of good intelligenceFederal identity forum and exposition

Intelligence and Thinking

Intelligence and Thinking

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Introduction

Intelligence and thinking make up part of the human experience. Intelligence is cognitive potential, while thinking is the use cognitive potential. Over the years, philosophers have shown interest in human intelligence and thinking and have attempted to understand how they vary from one individual to another. Besides variations in the levels of intelligence and thinking people display, philosophers have also explored the role genetics, culture, and environment have on an individual’s level of intelligence and thinking. Intelligence and thinking are the basis of human development and survival. Therefore, understanding how genetics, environment, and culture influence intelligence and thinking is crucial.

Genetics

Intelligence and thinking are the results of interactions between multiple genes. Brain functionality and structure are features that affect one’s level of intelligence. These features are determined by biological factors such as the levels of chemical activities in the brain, the shape and size of the frontal lobes, the size of the cortex, and the amounts of gray matter in the brain. Optimal biological features and well-functioning pathways result in optimal brain efficiency and functioning, an indicator of high levels of intelligence and thinking (Oommen, 2014). The influence of genetics on an individual’s intelligence is also evident through the genome-wide studies. These studies have identified various inherited genome sequences that account for up to 50% of intelligence heredity (Plomin & Von Stumm, 2018). These studies also show a strong correlation between genetics and intelligence, mainly as individuals grow older.

Environmental Factors

The environment people live in influences their intelligence and thinking. While genetics determines brain structure and volume, the environment one is exposed to also affects one’s level of intelligence and thinking. For instance, good nutrition impacts a child’s brain development, thus affecting their level of intelligence. Also, studies have shown that high nutrient diets help premature babies reduce the loss of brain size, further highlighting the importance of nutrition in determining one’s level of intelligence (Isaacs., 2008). Other environmental factors that influence intelligence include physical activity, access to education, and place of residence (Makharia et al., 2016). For instance, individuals who exercise more are more intelligent as they have higher oxygen levels in their brains. Also, increased levels of oxygen improve memory, decision-making, and productivity. Access to education and place of residence determines the levels of cognitive stimulation and individual experiences. Therefore, high levels of mental stimulation result in higher levels of intelligence, while low levels of cognitive stimulation result in low levels of intelligence.

Culture

Intelligence is a human characteristic that is influenced by culture. Different populations around the world have different cultures. In the US, the predominant culture focuses on the individual instead of the group. Focusing on an individual emphasizes personal achievement; hence personal intelligence is valued over group intelligence. In contrast, a culture that focuses on the group will focus more on group intelligence than individual intelligence. Intelligence affects the way an individual thinks. Therefore, people’s belief on what it means to be intelligent is dependent on people’s cultures (Sternberg & Grigorenko,2004). Cultural context is therefore important in defining and determining one’s intelligence levels as well as shaping one’s thought process.

Conclusion

Intelligence and thinking are essential in human development and survival. As highlighted above, genetics, environment, and culture influence levels of intelligence and thinking. Optimal biological, environmental, and cultural conditions promote high levels of intelligence and thinking, while unideal conditions lower levels of intelligence and thinking. Therefore, it is crucial to understand how genetics, culture, and environment influence intelligence and thinking and ensure optimal conditions are achieved.

References

Isaacs, E. B., Gadian, D. G., Sabatini, S., Chong, W. K., Quinn, B. T., Fischl, B. R., & Lucas, A. (2008). The effect of early human diet on caudate volumes and IQ. Pediatric Research, 63(3), 308-314.

Makharia, A., Nagarajan, A., Mishra, A., Peddisetty, S., Chahal, D., & Singh, Y. (2016). Effect of environmental factors on intelligence quotient of children. Industrial psychiatry journal, 25(2), 189.

Oommen, A. (2014). Factors influencing intelligence quotient. Journal of Neurology and Stroke, 1(4), 1-5.

Plomin, R., & Von Stumm, S. (2018). The new genetics of intelligence. Nature Reviews Genetics, 19(3), 148-159.

Sternberg, R. J., & Grigorenko, E. L. (2004). Intelligence and culture: how culture shapes what intelligence means, and the implications for a science of well–being. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences, 359(1449), 1427-1434.

Intellectual genealogy of Margaret Mead

Intellectual genealogy of Margaret Mead

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Intellectual genealogy of Margaret Mead

Anthropology is a branch of science concerned with the study of humans, human behavior, and societies both in the past and the present. There is cultural anthropology and social anthropology, physical anthropology, and linguistic anthropology. Social and cultural anthropology is concerned with the study of norms and values of society while physical anthropology is concerned with the study of the biological development of humans. Linguistic anthropology on the hand is all about the study of how language influences life CITATION Fra17 l 1033 (Boas, 2017). The sole purpose of anthropology studies is broad the understanding of the various aspects of human life and the experiences of humans both in the past and at present. The person who is involved in the anthropology study is referred to as an anthropologist. Just like any other career, anthropology has a lot of anthropologists worldwide. Franz Boas is the father of modern anthropology and the American anthropology. He is responsible for the scientific methodology in anthropology that was adopted after natural science. He also introduced the idea of viewing the culture of a people as learned behaviors which simplify the scope of anthropology. The purpose of this paper is to discuss the intellectual genealogy of Margaret Mead and her work and contributions to anthropology in general.

Margaret Mead was an American cultural anthropologist. She was famous in the 1960s and 1970s in the mass media for her books and speech CITATION Sha15 l 1033 (Shankman, Mead, Margaret (1901–1978), 2015). She was born on December 16, 1901, in Philadelphia to Edward and Emily Mead but was raised in Pennsylvania. She was the first born in her family. Edward Mead was a professor of finance at Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania while Emily Mead was a sociologist who majors in studying Italian immigrants. She died at the age of 76 on November 15, 1978, in New York. She was married thrice to Luther Cressman from 1923-1928, Reo Fortune from 1928-1935, and Gregory Bateson from 1935-1950. She was blessed with one child, Mary C. Bateson, who was born in 1939.

Her family moves frequently, and her first tutoring was from her grandmother at the age of 11. Her early education was majorly in Buckingham Friends School in Pennsylvania. She was later enrolled to DePauw University in 1919, but a year later she transferred to Barnard College where she graduated in 1923 and transitioned to graduate school of Columbia where she studies with her friend Ruth Benedict and Franz Boas. Both anthropologists, that is, Franz Boas and Ruth Benedict greatly her passion for anthropology. Margaret Mead received her bachelor’s degree in 1924 and a Ph. D in 1929 both from Columbia University.

After clearing from Columbia University, she traveled to the South Seas where she went to gather the material and knowledge to write her first book, Coming of Age in Samoa. The book was first published in 1928. Among the examples, her 23 books include; A Rap on Race of 1971 which she co-wrote with James Baldwin, Balinese Character: A Photographic Analysis of 1942 co-written with Gregory Bateson, Sex and Temperament in Three Primitive Societies of 1935, Growing Up in New Guinea of 1930, and Continuities in Cultural Evolution of 1964. From her books, Coming of Age in Samoa, in particular, she comes out clearly with her belief in cultural determinism which was later questioned by some anthropologists by the precision of her observation and sensibility of her conclusions.

Margaret Mead was the first anthropologist to study child-rearing practices and the learning theory in various social groups.

She postulated that children learn through imprinting which is learning by watching the adult behavior and trying to emulate it. Apart from child-rearing, she studied personality and culture. She studied the non-literate people of Oceania which became top of her career. The study involved studying the cultural conditioning of sexual behavior, natural character, and culture change. In 1960, she served as the president of the American Anthropologists Association. During the 1960s, she also served as the president of New York Academy of sciences. Apart from that, she served in various positions in the American Association for the Advancement of Science. Later on, she mentored young anthropologists and sociologists owing to her recognizable academia figure in American. In 1976, she participated in the first UN forum for human settlements and the same year she was inducted to the National Women’s Hall of Fame.

She used morphological theories to study the way people lived. She studied the cooperation and competition patterns in 13 primitive societies, and she was able to document the different behaviors from the societies in question in her book, Sex and Temperament in Three Primitive Societies in 1935 CITATION Mar18 l 1033 (Mead, 2018). She observed that masculinity is not necessarily represented by aggressiveness just the way femininity is not necessarily represented through submissiveness and compliance. There is more to personality than just masculinity and femininity and personality can be explained through biology, how people learn, and cultural norms. Culture itself is more relative to personality. She employs the theory of relativism in the way she studies the behavior difference in various cultures. The difference in behavioral patterns among a population is as a result of their culture.

Margaret Mead went to school with anthropologists such as Franz Boas; she connected and kept in touch with other anthropologists throughout her work. She outlined the intellectual lines of descent that connect her to even her parents, her husband and other anthropologists and sociologists such as Ruth Benedict and Franz Boas. Some of her books are co-written with other anthropologists, for instance, A Rap on Race of 1971 which was co-written with James Baldwin and Balinese Character: A Photographic Analysis of 1942 co-written with Gregory Bateson. Mead mentored most of the young and learning anthropologist and sociologists such as Jean Houston.

In 1939, she partnered with her husband Bateson in preparing the Balinese material for publication. Their skills were useful in helping the allied war effort in the United States. Furthermore, they used their skills to help the groups that applied behavioral sciences to issues such as for diminishing or lack of morale during the war. During a meet by the National Research Council’s committee on food habits, mead use anthropology to solve the problem of food preparation and distribution especially in the war zones. She also published a book, And Keep Your Powder Dry, in 1942 as an effort towards tackling the war problems in America.

She applied the anthropological methods in solving almost all the problems that stemmed out during that time. Anthropology was her major basis of analyzing the national character and explaining the behavior that the people in different countries especially those involved in war exhibited. She conducted such research by studying the immigrants during that, for example, the Italian immigrants. In other words, she was studying culture using the small group, that is the immigrants as a sample.

Margaret Mead was a cultural anthropologist who makes her major focus on studying the culture including the norms and values of societies. She was involved in studying culture especially during World War II when she allied with her long life friend Ruth Benedict in studying different cultures from afar through the study of the immigrants. The purpose of the study was to prepare for a postwar world, and the anthropologists sought to understand various cultures especially the warring countries. She continued with the study in which she was the chief leader after the death of her friend. The studies went on even after the war through an initiative chaired by mead called contemporary cultures project.

Her other dwelling was studied on human nature and human behavior CITATION Joh17 l 1033 (Morss, 2017). According to her theory, human behavior is learned. She did a study on rearing children where she pointed out that the learning theory for children is imprinting. A child watches adult behavior and emulates it, and that is exactly how he develops his/her behavior. She carried out the study in Samoa and to back up her theory she published a book Coming of Age in Samoa which has all her research from the adolescent girl from Samoa.

The issue she dealt in is feminism CITATION Pau17 l 1033 (Shankman, The Public Anthropology of Margaret Mead: Redbook, Women’s Issues, and the 1960s, 2017). Through her book, Sex and Temperament in Three Primitive Societies she addresses the male domination and the apparent need for women to be submissive. She illustrates that there should not be specific roles for specific genders. Her study on gender was however criticized as much as it had a feminist base as demeaning towards women.

In conclusion, Margaret mead contributed a lot in the modern anthropology in America in as much as some of her work was criticized. She still was featured in the women’s hall of fame for the remarkable contribution she made to solving problems using anthropology in America.

References

BIBLIOGRAPHY Boas, F. (2017). Anthropology and Modern Life. New York: Routledge.

Mead, M. (2018). Cooperation and Competition Among Primitive Peoples. New York: Routledge.

Morss, J. R. (2017). The Biologizing of Childhood. New York: Routledge.

Shankman, P. (2015, April 15). Mead, Margaret (1901–1978). Retrieved from Wiley Online Library: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781118896877.wbiehs294

Shankman, P. (2017). The Public Anthropology of Margaret Mead: Redbook, Women’s Issues, and the 1960s. Current Anthropology.

Integrative Medicine

Integrative Medicine

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Integrative Medicine

Integrative medicine is a combination of conventional medicine that includes drugs, surgeries, and lifestyle medicine and complementary medicine that are therapies that are not part of traditional western medicine. It uses different techniques to deliver whole-person care. Health care policies have not included integrative medicine and most patients are unable to cater for their expenses. There are different ways to improve health care services by including integrative medicine.

CAM stands for complementary and alternative medicine. These are the type of medicine that is not part of conventional western medicine. When they are used together with conventional medicine, it is referred to as complementary and when it is used in place of conventional medicine, it is called alternative. There are different types of CAM medicine and they include traditional alternative medicine, body, diet and herbs, external energy among others. Traditional alternative medicine is a form of therapy such as acupuncture, homeopathy, and oriented practices that have been practiced for so many years worldwide. The second one is the body where touch is used to manipulate the entire body into healing. They include massage, yoga, body movement therapies, and tai chi.

According to Bussing et al. (2010) Integrative health coverage is important because it helps patients with diseases such as cancer, chronic fatigue, persistent pain, and other chronic diseases to deal with their pain and improve the quality of their lives. Many health insurance covers do not cover complementary and alternative medicine that is often used in integrative medicine. It benefits patients who have long-term care settings and special medical services such as rehab. It is important for health insurance companies to make health coverage available for patients that suffer from these kinds of diseases. This will reduce health care costs and enable them access to better medical services.

The first healthcare improvement is educating physicians on the importance of complementary and alternative medicine in medical schools Wetzel et al. (1998). This gives them an idea when they practice medicine on what method they should use while treating patients. Integrative medicine will complement or be an alternative to western medicine. It makes it easy for them to study the feelings of a patient and determine the best medicine instead of assuming how they feel. Another improvement that can be made through healthcare policy, Maizes et al. (2009) is to allow health insurances to cover integrative health patients. It will allow them to access medical attention without the worry of finance. Patients who suffer from diseases like cancer and Parkinson’s have something that can take their pain away.

Medicare health program has come up with an alternative and complementary cover. Many people are now using alternative therapies such as massage and acupuncture in our societies. It has made it easy for patients to access alternative medicine. Services that you get can range from massage to yoga. However, alternative medicine has a very broad field that varies with the plan that you decide to choose. There are different plans for the insurance and one is at will to choose from the one that suits them better. What works for one person may not for another.

Until medicine accepts complementary and alternative medicine completely, patients will not be in a place to get enough medical attention that aims at treating the entire body including a healthy diet, mental health, and exercise. Our society is growing and more people are looking for alternative medicine from the western ones. Our government needs to pay attention to complementary and alternative medicine and ensure that different health insurances cover alternative medicine.

Reference

Büssing, A., Ostermann, T., Neugebauer, E. A., & Heusser, P. (2010). Adaptive coping strategies in patients with chronic pain conditions and their interpretation of disease. BMC public health, 10(1), 1-10.

Maizes, V., Rakel, D., & Niemiec, C. (2009). Integrative medicine and patient-centered care. Explore, 5(5), 277-289.

Wetzel, M. S., Eisenberg, D. M., & Kaptchuk, T. J. (1998). Courses involving complementary and alternative medicine at US medical schools. Jama, 280(9), 784-787.

Integrative Literature Review

Integrative Literature Review

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Introduction

Nurses are typically at the healthcare delivery system’s forefront and have been announced to show a significant level of burnout. Job burnout is a huge challenge in social professions, particularly in healthcare globally. Job burnout refers to a mental, physical, and emotional exhaustion state that is brought about by long-time demands mismatch associated with the worker’s resources and the job. According to Dyerbye et al. (2017), about half of the entire nursing workforce is having job burnout with the possibility of possible risk to patients, job dysfunction, and personal consequence. Job burnout is frequently connected to nurses’ intention to quit their profession because it is characterized by three classic symptoms, which include reduced personal accomplishment, cynicism (depersonalization), and exhaustion (Kelly et al., 2020). The burnout nurses may get exhausted while trying their best to ensure caring for various patients with minimal chances of recovery. Also, nurses with job burnout may show depersonalization in various uncharacteristic negative behaviors, incivility towards co-workers, and poor communication with different co-workers.

Nurses experience poor self-esteem that is job-related and lacks motivation when they have job burnout. They also feel that they are underperforming in their various job responsibilities. Thus, they may experience a lack of contentment and reduced personal accomplishment concerning job-related stressors like burnout and, in the end, leave their position. The nurses leaving their job not only disrupts patient care but is connected to high financial costs. However, it is difficult to adequately establish how nurses with job burnout compared to those without job burnout affect medical care than retaining their positions. Therefore, this literature review concerning the effect of medical care over hospital stay by nurses experiencing job burnout compared to those without job burnout will attempt to close the present gaps in knowledge.

Research Question

In patients, how do nurses who are suffering from job burnout compared to nurses not suffering from job burnout affect the medical care over the hospital stay?

Literature Review

Job burnout is an essential under-studied facet of nursing. In nursing, it is a threat to U.S. healthcare and health. Workload has been a significant cause of the frightening increase in burnout in nursing. Alleviating burnout factors is a complicated issue that requires strategies to support the efforts. As job burnout for nurses continues to increase, how it impacts medical care than hospital stay compared to lack of job burnout offers a compelling ground for carrying out this particular line of research. Thus, this literature review is aimed at establishing the nurses’ job burnout effect on medical care than hospital stay compared to nurses without job burnout.

Summary and Appraisals of Selected Literature

Munnangi et al. (2018) conducted a cross-sectional survey investigating various principal factors, including job satisfaction, perceived stress, burnout, and professional and personal demographics. Munnangi et al.’s (2018) study provide that stress and burnout in safety-net hospitals for trauma nurses can impact patient care negatively. Munnangi et al.’s (2018) study found that the emotional exhaustion extent experiences by various nurses differed with the job location. It was huge in nurses of the surgical care intensive care unit. Also, the study revealed there is a significant relationship between job satisfaction, burnout, and stress which are all impacted by the work environment.

Mohamed (2019) utilized a mixed-methods design to compare second-career and first-career nurses’ experiences of burnout, presenteeism, and stress in the transition to practice. Mohamed’s (2019) study revealed burnout prevalence, explaining nursing roles where it can result in staff shortage due to resignation and infective quality delivery. In addition, there were possible burnout consequences for all participants, which depended on their own health, patient care, and unit culture.

Afriyie (2020) utilized a self-reported questionnaire and cross-sectional design to evaluate emotional labor’s influence on burnout syndrome. Afriyie (2020) provides that burnout syndrome impacts nurses’ quality of care offered to patients, job satisfaction, performance, and quality of care. Thus, emotional resilience should be increased to lower burnout in nurses.

Kelly et al. (2020) conducted a nonexperimental study to establish the relationship between position and organization turnover and burnout. Kelly et al.’s (2020) study showed that 54 percent of nurses suffered from moderate burnout, and emotional exhaustion increased by 10 percent. Kelly et al. (2020) and Shah et al. (2021) revealed a significant burnout impact on organizational turnover, where there is an increase in nurses leaving their job due to an increase in emotional exhaustion.

Diehl et al. (2021) offer the closest example in the present literature to the current proposed research study for undertaking this literature review. Diehl et al. (2021) applied a cross-sectional survey to investigate the moderating resource’s role in the connection between burnout and workload among nurses. Diehl et al.’s (2021) study revealed that nurses who described recognition from the supervisor, a better working team, and workplace commitment portrayed a weaker relationship between burnout and quantitative demands than nurses who did not. Typically, nurses spend 20 percent of their job time in palliative care. Thus, Diehl et al. (2021) associate spending more time than this with burnout.

Mudallal et al. (2018) provide a comparative example in the present literature to the current proposed research study for undertaking this literature review. Mudallal et al. (2018) utilized correlational and cross-sectional designs to investigate the burnout level among Jordanian nurses. Also, the study aimed to assess the leader empowering behaviors to influence nurses’ burnout feelings in an urge to better nursing work results. Mudallal et al.’s (2018) study found that Jordanian nurses show high burnout levels due to their high scores for depersonalization and emotional exhaustion. Personal accomplishment demonstrated moderate scores. Also, Mudallal et al. (2018) provided a significant correlation between factors connected to nurses’ demographic traits and work conditions with burnout categories. In addition, Mudallal et al. (2018) describe the importance of nurse leaders’ role in bettering work conditions and motivating and empowering nurses to lower their burnout feeling, better nursing care quality, and reduce turnover rates.

Torrente et al.’s (2021) study provide a close example in the present literature to the current proposed research study for undertaking this literature review. Torrente et al. (2021) conducted an online survey-based and cross-sectional study to investigate the burnout syndrome prevalence in healthcare workers who worked in Spain on the front line during the coronavirus. Eligibility for the study concentrated on Spanish healthcare workers in the usual ward or front line. Torrente et al.’s (2021) study revealed that women healthcare workers felt more significant burnout than men and were considerably afraid of the quality of care offered to the various patients, their performance, and self-infection. Also, being a woman below 30 years and a nurse was connected to a high burnout syndrome risk. Thus, Torrente et al.’s (2021) study reported high burnout syndrome rates and proposed immediate implementation of interventions to ensure mental health for healthcare workers affected by the coronavirus.

Gaps in the Selected Literature

Little to no research exists comparing the impact of medical care over hospital stay by nurses experiencing job burnout compared to those without job burnout. The moderate research present involves the impact of job burnout on hospital stay (turnover), quality care, and patient care (Munnangi et al., 2018; Mohamed, 2019; Afriyie, 2020; Mudallal et al., 2018). Therefore, a gap exists concerning the impact of nurses without job burnout on medical care than hospital stays as only Diehl et al.’s (2021) study attempts to provide the connection, although relating to burnout syndrome in healthcare workers rather than specifically to nurses.

Moreover, a significant gap exists where many of the studies were limited in scope and utilized small samples; this made it difficult to deduce general conclusions for the wider population. For example, Torrente et al. (2021) had most participants obtained from the Madrid Community, which limited the generalization of the presented findings. Also, Mudallal et al. (2018) utilized smaller and less representative samples for every analyzed variable, thus lowering the findings’ generalizability.

Conclusion

The research carried out by Munnangi et al. (2018), Mohamed (2019), Afriyie (2020), and Mudallal et al. (2018) all offer evidence that job burnout in nurses, impact turnover rate, quality care, and patient care. Torrente et al. (2021) further revealed that women healthcare workers felt more significant burnout than men and were considerably afraid of the quality of care offered to the various patients, their performance, and their self-infection. Diehl et al. (2021) provide that nurses who described recognition from the supervisor, a better working team, and workplace commitment portrayed a weaker relationship between burnout and quantitative demands than nurses who did not. In addition, Mudallal et al. (2018) describe the importance of nurse leaders’ role in bettering work conditions and motivating and empowering nurses to lower their burnout feeling, better nursing care quality, and reduce turnover rates. Thus, this research attempts to start the process of closing the huge gap in the present literature. Therefore, with job burnout still being a significant issue for nurses, this proposed research will provide its impact and the need for interventions to improve medical care and reduce turnover rates.

References

Afriyie, D. (2020). Reducing work-related stress to minimise emotional labour and burn-out syndrome in nurses. Evidence Based Nursing, ebnurs-2020-103321. https://doi.org/10.1136/ebnurs-2020-103321

Diehl, E., Rieger, S., Letzel, S., Schablon, A., Nienhaus, A., Escobar Pinzon, L. C., & Dietz, P. (2021). The relationship between workload and burnout among nurses: The buffering role of personal, social and organisational resources. PLOS ONE, 16(1), e0245798. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0245798

Dyrbye, L. N., Shanafelt, T. D., Sinsky, C. A., Cipriano, P. F., Bhatt, J., Ommaya, A., West, C. P., & Meyers, D. (2017). Burnout Among Health Care Professionals: A Call to Explore and Address This Underrecognized Threat to Safe, High-Quality Care. NAM Perspectives, 7(7). https://doi.org/10.31478/201707b

Kelly, L. A., Gee, P. M., & Butler, R. J. (2020). Impact of nurse burnout on organizational and position turnover. Nursing Outlook, 69(1), 96–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.outlook.2020.06.008

Mohamed, L. K. (2019). First-career and second-career nurses’ experiences of stress, presenteeism and burn-out during transition to practice. Evidence Based Nursing, 22(3), 85–85. https://doi.org/10.1136/ebnurs-2019-103069

Mudallal, R. H., Othman, W. M., & Al Hassan, N. F. (2018). Nurses’ Burnout: The Influence of Leader Empowering Behaviors, Work Conditions, and Demographic Traits. INQUIRY: The Journal of Health Care Organization, Provision, and Financing, 54(1), 004695801772494. https://doi.org/10.1177/0046958017724944

Munnangi, S., Dupiton, L., Boutin, A., & Angus, L. D. G. (2018). Burnout, Perceived Stress, and Job Satisfaction Among Trauma Nurses at a Level I Safety-Net Trauma Center. Journal of Trauma Nursing, 25(1), 4–13. https://doi.org/10.1097/jtn.0000000000000335

Shah, M. K., Gandrakota, N., Cimiotti, J. P., Ghose, N., Moore, M., & Ali, M. K. (2021). Prevalence of and Factors Associated With Nurse Burnout in the US. JAMA Network Open, 4(2). https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.36469

Torrente, M., Sousa, P. A., Sánchez-Ramos, A., Pimentao, J., Royuela, A., Franco, F., Collazo-Lorduy, A., Menasalvas, E., & Provencio, M. (2021). To burn-out or not to burn-out: a cross-sectional study in healthcare professionals in Spain during COVID-19 pandemic. BMJ Open, 11(2), e044945. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2020-044945

International Political Economy of East Asia

International Political Economy of East Asia

Claim:

Academics who analyze the economic success that Japan and Korea saw in the decades after World War II have a tendency to place an excessive amount of emphasis on the role that state-led industrialization played in these economies, specifically the influence that industrial policies had.

Indeed, industrial strategy can, in fact, account for their remarkable rate of economic growth. Some scholars put forward that factors, such as the sound general economic policies both governments implemented, the dynamic of each country’s respective private sector, and the favorable external context that both countries enjoyed, can be used to explain the rapid growth that both nations have experienced in recent years.

Position:

However, this section disagrees with this position, supporting evidence that Japan and Korea are where they are today largely due to government and state-led initiatives relating to industrialization, partnerships with the US, and other forms of strategies that support the growth of industries in the two nations. 

Argument:

The political framework that is in place at the beginning of the development phase has a significant influence on the growth strategy that is ultimately selected. Because South Korea had just recently emerged from a long period of Japanese occupation (1910-1948), which culminated in a war that severed the country’s link with North Korea, the leadership and public of the country aspired to achieve economic self-sufficiency as well as increased political autonomy (Seth, 2013). As a consequence of this, South Korea started its economy after the Korean War with the intention of implementing import substitution, focusing on local markets that developed daily as North Korean refugees flooded into the nation (Haggard, Kim, & Moon, 1991). Following the defeat of their country in World War II, the Japanese people were given the opportunity to initiate an entirely new economic system from the ground up. The fact that the war destroyed all the Japanese had constructed over the course of the years made this possibility a reality. During the time that the United States was occupying Japan, a number of different reform efforts were carried out in order to repair and recover the destroyed country. These reforms paved the way for Japan to eventually have the chance to become an economic powerhouse. The American occupation forces in Japan were responsible for the implementation of three primary reform policies: the democratization of labor, the reform of land ownership, and the elimination of zaibatsu. These reform efforts had a significant influence on the democracy and modernisation of the nation, as well as its capacity to make economic growth. The execution of the Dodge Plan and the subsequent effects it had from the beginning of the Korean War made it possible for Japan’s economy to begin to recover. The end of the Korean War paved the way for this recovery to become a possibility. As a result of the so-called “Korean War boom,” the economy was able to observe a significant boost in output, which marked the beginning of the nation’s economic miracle.

Claim:

Scholars studying Japan’s and Korea’s economic success in the decades after WWII have a tendency to overemphasize the importance that state-led industrialisation had in both countries, notably the effect that industrial policies had.

Indeed, industrial strategy may explain for their extraordinary pace of economic expansion. Some scholars argue that factors such as the sound general economic policies implemented by both governments, the dynamic of each country’s respective private sector, and the favorable external context enjoyed by both countries can be used to explain the rapid growth experienced by both nations in recent years.

Position:

The section agrees with this position, supporting evidence that the high-speed growth of Japan and Korea can be explained b factors including the sound general economic policies both governments followed, the dynamism of their respective private sectors, and the favorable external context that both enjoyed.

Argument:

The massive increase in Japan’s per capita income between the years 1880 and 1970 was largely attributed to the industrialization process that Sugihara (2004) believes to have been initiated by the government. It is uncommon for a business to be able to boost sales simply increasing the volume of goods it produces. Western Europe, Canada, Australia, and the United States were all able to achieve high levels of per capita income by shifting away from agricultural production and toward industrial and technologically advanced service sector activities. Moving away from agriculture production helped achieve this. Due to the nation’s high agricultural productivity, Japan had a robust craft (or proto-industrial) sector that thrived in both rural and urban regions before the country made the shift to an industrial economy (Moriguchi & Saez, 2008). Both rural and urban regions may do this. The bulk of Japan’s output growth may be explained by an increase in domestic investments made in the country’s increasing industrial sector and infrastructure. Private businesses and governmental institutions worked together to build the country’s infrastructure. Japan’s labor and capital markets started to take on much more diverse forms throughout the 1910s (Van de Kaa, 2002). The capital-intensive industry paid higher salaries whereas the labor-intensive sector paid lower salaries. This was a result of the high capital-to-labor ratios in the capital-intensive industry. Dualistic economic systems made income gaps worse, which led to domestic social unrest. Following the Second World War, Japan adopted a series of legislative changes that reduced inequality and ended the majority of the communal hostility that had previously ruled the nation as a result of dualism. Japan was in a stronger position to meet the challenge offered by the West as a consequence of these wins at home led by the government (Honda, 1997). It originally gave a lot of weight to coal and other fossil fuels as steam sources in order to accomplish this. It had a highly educated populace and an early form of industrial distribution networks, which were both utilized to mimic Western management and energy production methods. The Japanese were well-equipped to master inorganic production when the Americans’ Black Ships forced Japan to give up its long-standing autarky because of their significant development of the organic economy, which depended on natural energy flows like wind, water, and fire. This happened as a result of Japan being forced to give up its long-standing autarky by American Black Ships. They were able to develop procedures for the production of inorganic materials as a direct consequence of this.

Personal Position and Opinion:

In summary, both Japan and South Korea had to carry out significant state-led initiatives in order to ensure that the two nations retained their accelerated growth towards industrialization and economic progress. While South Korea was slow to start, its partnership with the American government led to recovery in areas of education, finance, and economics. Entrepreneurship expanded in South Korea leading to a state-led economic transformation. To begin its reforms after the war, the Japanese nobility was stripped of its land, wealth, and rank in conformity with the standards outlined in the postwar constitution. The wealthy landowners were forced to sell their property to the tenants who worked on it for much less than market value. Japan instituted a new economic policy based on social capitalism and embracing a unique economic model that led to success.

References

Haggard, S., Kim, B. K., & Moon, C. I. (1991). The transition to export-led growth in South Korea: 1954–1966. The Journal of Asian Studies, 50(4), 850-873.

Hanashima, M., & Tomobe, K. I. (2012). Urbanization, industrialization, and mortality in modern Japan: A spatio-temporal perspective. Annals of GIS, 18(1), 57-70.

Honda, G. (1997). Differential structure, differential health: industrialization in Japan, 1868-1940. In Health and welfare during industrialization (pp. 251-284). University of Chicago Press.

Moriguchi, C., & Saez, E. (2008). The evolution of income concentration in Japan, 1886–2005: evidence from income tax statistics. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 90(4), 713-734.

Seth, M. J. (2013). An Unpromising Recovery: South Korea’s Post-Korean War Economic Development: 1953-1961. Education About Asia, 18(3), 42.

Sugihara, K. (2004). The East Asian path of economic development: a long-term perspective. In The Resurgence of East Asia (pp. 92-137). Routledge.

Van de Kaa, D. J. (2002). The idea of a second demographic transition in industrialized countries. Birth, 35, 45.