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Crime And Media Images Of Crime Are Becoming As Real As Crime Itself

Crime And Media: Images Of Crime Are Becoming As ‘Real’ As Crime Itself

Introduction

Any discussion on the close resemblance between images of crime and real crime itself is basically a study of the relationship between agents of images of crime which is mass media and agents of real-life crime. The relationship between these two closely-alike agents needs to be closely examined and clear boundaries set. However, recent trends of real-life crimes shows such examination may bear little fruits as crime images portrayed in popular media have turned into precursors of real-life instead of serving their intended role of invoking moral panic. As a matter of fact, recent research shows that not only are images of crime closely similar to crime itself, but that images of crimes lead to the crime itself (see for example Leishman and Mason, 2002; Leitch, 2003a; 2003b; 2003c). There is a general contention that young people tend to associate themselves with popular film characters and even go to the extent of emulating some of their behaviour traits. This essay seeks to explore how images of crime are becoming as ‘real’ as crime itself. This will be achieved by way of giving examples. Overall, it will be argued that the mass media has failed to induce moral panic and instead has turned to be the popular knowledge repository where would-be criminals learn their first criminal skills.

Relationship between Crime Images and Real-Life Crime

The mass media portrays crime in a rather problematic manner. There is a growing concern among theorists and criminologists alike that mass media have become more of a cause and not a deterrent of crime (ASC, 2010; Brain, 2002; Chancer, 2005). However, Reiner (2007) posits that this trend is not new. While giving the case of Magistrate Patrick Colquhoun, Reiner shows that as early as the 18th century, mass media was perceived as a major precursor of crime. He claims that in a landmark ruling, Magistrate Patrick pointed out that since the media is perceived by majority of the people as a lens through which one can look into the outside world as well as a mirror through which one can polish their images, then the recent cases of crime among the young people could be because many people especially the young look at film characters as role models which should be emulated. These sentiments are shared by Leitch (2003b), who claims that young people lack a strong sense of judgment and are easily beguiled into following popular film characters even when their moral standing is weak. Moreover, Leitch (2003a) argues that though portrayals of crime in the mass media are meant to instil moral panic among the audience, this is not always the case as recent crime trends indicate – young people develop a liking of criminal characters instead despising them. Specifically and while drawing from Leitch (2002: 15), it is true that,

Crime films operate by mediating between two powerful but blankly contradictory articles of faith: that the social order that every crime challenges is ultimately well-defined, stable, and justified in consigning different people to the mutually exclusive roles of lawbreakers, law enforcers, and the victims who are the audience’s natural identification figures; and that every audience member is not only a potential victim but a potential avenger and a potential criminal under the skin.

Media portrayal of crime is biased and may at times attract criminal sentiments. Though the above statement by Leitch (2002) was made in an attempt to define what a crime film entails, one cannot fail to see that the perceptions drawn by crime film audience could actually be retrogressive to the very gist of crime films. For instance, crime films that are constructed from the perspective of the criminal who ends up evading law enforcers are most likely to portray crime as a good thing among the young audience whose content analytical skills are not well developed. Since according to Reiner (2007), content analysis is an art and a science that requires high levels of cognitive capability and great moral composure, it is only wise to reason that the young audience may fail to grasp the moral of a crime film and blindly believe that the society expects them to exhibit hardcore characters as a normal way of day-to-day survival in their respective societies. Leitch (2003c) supports this sentiments by positing that though crime films are meant to be educative on matters of morality and law, most are times when they are interpreted wrongly especially those films with complex storylines. Overall, it is arguable that like many other literary works, crime films are full of scriptural fallacies that tend to mislead the audience into believing that one can engage on crime and get away with it.

Media portrayal of crime is not consistent with the actuality. A content analysis of the reporting of crime in newspapers, official statistical reports as well as in radio and television programmes by Reiner (2007) shows a systematic and rather intentional disparity between crimes reporting and the actuality. Specifically, there is a disparity between the reported offenses, the crime victims, the offenders and the roles played by law enforcers in the crime in question. Usually, these differences are revealed when authorities commission a statistical survey. Nevertheless and as Leitch (2002) shows, at times such surveys gather accurate data but their interpretation and reporting is again not impartially carried out. Many studies have documented this problem and have gone ahead to show that this disparity is partly responsible for the escalating cases of criminal activities in poor working class neighbourhoods where access to authentic information may be a big challenge. For instance, Leitch (2003a; 2003b) argues that the overrepresentation of crime creates a hardcore-mentality among poor neighbourhood youths who in turn form vigilante groups for self protection. Over the course of time, these vigilante groups generate into criminal gangs especially if their purpose is defeated when official crime combat teams made up of elite police squads take over to crash criminal elements. Moreover, Reiner (2007) shows that overrepresentation provokes law enforcement agencies to roll out extreme measures which sometimes may be oppressive as to elicit negative sentiments among the youths who may in turn become run-away belligerents.

The contemporary society mediatises almost all major behavioural indicators. A paper presented in the ASC annual meeting in San Francisco in 2010, argues that in a world characterised by multi-mediatisation of cultural and ethical values, one’s moral standing is a function of the media they consume. Specifically, the article attaches the contemporary crime trends to the mediatisation of the justice system – human experience from a justice system is approached broadly from the popular culture (media) representation. These sentiments seem to be influenced by what Greer (2010) refers to as “media criminology” or the link between the intended functions of the mediatisation of crime and the actual results of such mediatisation. Specifically, it can be inferred that indeed, the media is a good tool for crime prevention especially when it is utilised rightly, however, it is clear here that since almost every human experience has been mediatised, there is the likelihood that some mediums such as the internet are wrongly misunderstood. For example, there are a lot of crime related video games circulating in the computer world and many youth have grown popular with them. Brain (2002) confirm this contention by arguing that as opposed to other mediums such as television and news papers where the audience only views or reads crime news, videos games have a major impact on their audience as they require one to actively take part, practice and perfect a game.

There is a very narrow distinction between fiction and fact crime images in the contemporary mass media. Due to their popular nature among the young and middle aged population, the production of crime related films has become a multimillion dollar industry – today, film producers outdo each other in producing literary works out of almost every major criminal justice related activity including the recent trend of terrorist activities (ASC, 2010). A latest book by an alleged member of the team of SEAL marines who took part in the successful killing of Osama bin Laden exemplifies this argument. This competition has however made it very hard to distinguish between what constitutes a true story and factual one. While drawing from past studies done by Leishman and Mason (2002), Reiner (2007) argues that some crime films are just too entertaining and influential as to beguile the audience that they are indeed real. For example, any film showing the abduction and the subsequent killing of Osama may sell millions of copies in a short time. Moreover, while drawing from Chancer (2005) postulation that the images of characters portrayed in films are etched in the minds of the viewers and irrespective of whether they are true or fictitious, one only imagines how Osama sympathisers will react towards the western culture when such a film is realised. These sentiments are shared by Lawrence (2000) and INNES (2001) in their accounts of the O.J. Simpson trial, assault of Rodney King and the CCTV records of Jamie Bulger killing. All these images can be precursors to criminal activities depending on one’s cognitive and content analysis capabilities.

Contemporary crime, from a “media criminology” standpoint occurs in a systematic manner. In his work Reiner (2007) argues that contemporary crime can be conceptualised into the following core theoretical frameworks. Arguably, these frameworks spans the length of time one takes to familiarise themselves with a literary work and the actions they take as advised by these literary works (ASIC, 2010; Brain, 2002; Chancer, 2005). They include labelling, motive, means, opportunity and absence of control. The media cannot be said to be a framework in itself but it helps to unbundle the frameworks. Labelling entails the portrayal of certain characters as criminals in crime films. Since most of these characters are given the “main actor” tag, it is only wise to argue that they have a lasting mark on their audience (Reiner, 2007). On the other hand, most psychological and legal studies agree that criminal activities are aggravated (see for example, ASC, 2010; Brain, 2002; Chancer, 2005). This aggravation amounts to motives. One can form a motive after watching an emotionally wrenching film, such as the capture, sentencing, and hanging of Saddam Hussein. On the other hand, means entails the flexibility with which one can access various media platforms to access new knowledge. For example, Reiner (2007) shows that the murder of Jamie Bulger was influenced by a popular video in the 1950s called child’s play. Criminal opportunity manifests in the ease with which the media presents new methods and types of crime. One can watch many crime documentaries showing different homicides perpetuated in different locations and put such methods into practice (Chancer, 20055). The proliferation of internet enable mobile devices presents this opportunity at the tap of a button. There is much freedom today in most societies when it comes to accessing informative mediums such as the internet. This leads to avoidable crimes. This is true since has been noted that controls prevent crimes (Brain, 2002; Chancer, 2005), For instance, cases of rape can be reduced if underage children are barred from accessing pornographic materials.

Nevertheless, “mediatised criminology” is entirely not tied to the above conditions. Recent works by ASC (2010) and Greer (2010) reinforce this contention by clarifying that the order in which these conditions are structured in not always rigid, sometimes, crime can take place without a clear motive, without labelling, without a clear opportunity, or even in instances when there is clear control. Here, the authors suggest that the mediatisation of crime does not necessarily take place a long a formal line, rather an offender can just wake up one day and decides to set their neighbours property on fire because they saw a film depicting a celebrity such as the controversial Italian and Manchester City footballer, Mario Ballotelli was reported to have set his own house on fire for setting firecrackers in his bathroom.

Conclusion

There is no doubt that crime films contribute to real-life crime. This easy has argued that crime films clearly label some characters as criminals through the roles they are assigned to play. Such labelling draws much meaning especially when it is accompanied by motive, means, and the opportunity to put what has been learned in a film to practice. This is exacerbated by the lack of control on what people can watch as anyone can access an amateur movie through online applications such as you tube. That crime films are usually biased and far from the actuality makes these conditions to be easily realised. Moreover, since people look at media as a tool for social procreation, people especially the young might want to put into practice what they learn from crime films. This is true since it has become very hard to differentiate between a factual and a fictitious literary work.

References

AC (Nov. 2010), Mass Media and the Social Construction of Crime: A Critique and Implications for the Future, Article presented at the Annual Meetings of the ASC, San Francisco, November 2010, available at: HYPERLINK “http://www.greggbarak.com/whats_new_6.html” http://www.greggbarak.com/whats_new_6.html (accessed September 4, 2012).

Brain, C. (2002), Advanced psychology: applications, issues and perspectives, Cheltenham, Nelson Thornes.

Chancer, L. S. (2005), High-profile crimes: when legal cases become social causes, Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

Greer, C. (Ed.) (2010), Crime and media: A reader, London, UK: Routledge Publishers Limited.

Lawrence, R.G. (2000), The Politics of Force: Media and the Construction of Police Brutality, Berkeley: University of California Press.

Leishman, F., and Mason, P. (2002), Policing and the Media: Facts, Fictions and Factions, Cullompton: Willan.

Leitch, T. (2002), Crime films,New York, NY: The Press Syndicate of the University Of Cambridge.

Leitch, T. (2003), ‘Basic instinct and the erotic thriller’, In Crime Films: Genres in American Cinema, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 146-169.

Leitch, T. (2003), ‘Fury and the victim film’, In Crime Films: Genres in American Cinema, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 79-102.

Leitch, T. (2003), ‘Murder on the orient express, blue velvet and the un-official detective film’, In Crime Films: Genres in American Cinema, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 170-191.

Reiner, R. (2007). ‘Media made criminality the representation of crime in the mass media’, in M. Maguire, R. Morgan and R. Reiner, The Oxford handbook of criminology, New York, NY: Oxford University Press, pp. 376-416.

Parole refers to the conditional release of prisoners into the community before the expiration of their sentence.

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INSTITUTION

COURSE

INSTRUCTOR

DATE

Parole refers to the conditional release of prisoners into the community before the expiration of their sentence. The parole and probation laws within a country have a strong impact on that country’s prison population, and they are often criticized as being unduly sentencing related too much to actual “punishment” (Reitz & Rhine, 2020). Some jurisdictions call this type of early release “judicial parole,” which is done after conviction by a court of law or other designated tribunal, such as for serious violent crimes in a country with release at about half-time served (Reitz & Rhine, 2020). The modern parole system was developed in Canada and the United States during the 1870s (Reitz & Rhine, 2020). Since the adoption of the parole system, its effects have been observed to be both positive and negative to some extent. It is nonetheless an alternative to life imprisonment, which has been shown to be a more cost-effective and expedient option. The positive impacts of parole in U.S, have contributed to its popularity where it is slowly gaining recognition and becoming more accepted as an approach to managing offenders (Reitz & Rhine, 2020). However, the associated negative effects are causing contradictory views which hence indicate the need for improvement. The parole system has come to be characterized by a growing concern for public safety, especially in the United States. As the number of people who are released from prison increases, there is growing debate about released prisoners attempting to re-offend and what this means for corrections policy. The widespread and increasingly popular belief that parole officers are unable to contribute meaningfully towards public safety has generated a backlash against parole and the crime control policies that surround it (Reitz & Rhine, 2020).

A common misconception is that parole is a “get-out-of-jail-free” card; however, it is not. While on parole, an individual is expected to obey all laws and all of the conditions of the parole can be enforced with sanctions or incarceration if violated (Bartels, Fitzgerald& Freiberg, 2018). Studies have shown that people who are in prison for serious felony crimes tend to offend again within three years upon release. This statistic shows us that there may be some people who simply cannot be rehabilitated while in prison; therefore, they must serve their entire sentence behind bars; they will certainly offend again after release if not incarcerated (Bartels, Fitzgerald& Freiberg, 2018). However, parole allows these individuals to be released from prison sooner than the originally intended (Bartels, Fitzgerald& Freiberg, 2018). It allows for this to be more effectively done, as not all individuals can be rehabilitated despite being kept in custody over their crimes for their entire sentence. The problem with not being able to participate in society once a person has served their sentence is that they may resort back to crime and stop working towards rehabilitation. Parole allows individuals to become productive members of society and encourages reformation. In addition, although people who have committed serious felonies tend to offend after release while on parole; this still does not mean that all serious felons cannot be rehabilitated while on parole.

Lack of adequate time for parole consideration is hurting the corrections system; therefore, indicating that indeterminate sentencing should be abolished (Dagan & Roberts, 2019). Supportive evidence of this position is that there are few incentives to prison rehabilitation, and the limited amount of resources in prisons. This more permanent sentencing has a negative impact on inmates, families, and communities by causing people to be released without a job or stable living environment. Furthermore, without an indeterminate sentence, prisoners would have more incentive to participate in programs and work towards rehabilitation because they would want to get out early instead of being incarcerated for life. Studies have shown that indeterminate sentencing undermines prison rehabilitative efforts as it limits the amount of resources available for inmate support. However, other findings support that parole does not reduce recidivism but rather does just the opposite of what is intended in order to rehabilitate criminals (Dagan & Roberts, 2019). Also, in 2005, there were approximately 1,300 murders committed by individuals while they were out on parole (Dagan & Roberts, 2019). The same year that these murders took place was also the same year that seven hundred and sixty-six thousand people were on parole (Dagan & Roberts, 2019). Although the fact that parole does not reduce recidivism, the U.S. Department of Justice does support the validity of parole. The reason that notwithstanding the lack of evidence regarding its effectiveness; still, parole continues to be supported by federal government is because it allows prisoners who serve their sentences to be released as soon as possible. By doing so, it gives these individuals more time to adjust back into society and become productive citizens.

The structural risk of the federal prison system is largely due to a variety of factors, including inadequate rehabilitative services, insufficient funding and resources allocated to prisons, and prison overcrowding. Since its inception in 1994, the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act has been a major turning point for criminal justice policy in the US (James, 2018). The act was written primarily with inner-city violent felonies in mind but had an unforeseen effect on nonviolent drug offenders as well. In 2010 alone, 2 million people were incarcerated at either federal or state level. Inadequate rehabilitative services are the major risk factors within the federal prison system (James, 2018). With the exception of prisoners convicted of drug-related offenses, there are no provisions in place to provide inmates with basic education or vocational training. This leads to inmates either returning to society with minimal skills and education, therefore more likely to continue their criminal lifestyle upon release, or foregoing an education altogether which can ultimately lead to future offending. Insufficient funding and resources on the other hand, is also a major deterring factor within the federal prison system. It leads to overcrowding, which itself is a serious issue but also has a negative effect on prison management and administration as it leads to further staff shortages, resulting in numerous problems including poor sanitation, understaffing and underfunding of programs.

One of the most crucial functional risks in the federal prison system is understaffing. Federal Bureau of Prisons (BOP) currently manages over 193 facilities throughout the United States with a total reported inmate population across all facilities at over 209,000 people (Hickert et al., 2022). With a constant increase in population, the system cannot help but have their concerns on the understaffing of federal prisons. According to the BOP website, as of March 2018 there are 7,489 staff vacancies within BOP facilities; not including contract correctional officers (Hickert et al., 2022). The level of understaffing is so dire that correctional officers are allowed to work double or triple duty shifts. A 2017 study from the Bureau of Justice Statistics showed that the federal prison system was experiencing an even more serious issue. In a survey conducted on over 3,000 inmates nationally, about 40% of those surveyed reported being overworked and about 60% reported being underpaid for their work in BOP facilities (Hickert et al., 2022).

Over the years, various reforms have been developed and implemented to prevent and reduce the risk factors within the federal prison system, to make the facilities safer for both imprisoners and the staff. Reduction of harsh prison sentences is one of the reforms that have been implemented (Hickert et al., 2022). In the past, federal prison sentences have been harsh and these harsher penalties were based on the seriousness of the crime committed. Yet today, most prison sentences are not as harsh as they once were. These reforms have been developed to reduce prison overcrowding and make sure that prisoners are sent to the prisons that will best suit their needs. Additionally, judges are now allowed to use discretion in deciding which penalties each criminal should receive. The custody level is one of the reforms that has been developed to deal with this problem. Another reform is creation of Transforming Prison Acts which allows for inmates to be placed in pioneering education programs. The concept of Transforming Prison Acts was developed by the American Bar Association (ABA) and created out of the belief that prisoners can become productive members of society if given proper instruction and training. These new educational programs aim to reduce criminal activity while increasing employability. The correctional system role emphasizes the rehabilitative aspect of punishment, rather than simply punitive measures. The idea behind these reforms stems from the idea of reformation, which is consistent with an individual’s unique characteristics at the time of sentencing and current changes in public opinion (Hickert et al., 2022).

Implementation of the reforms has positively impacted on corrections such that the federal prison system is now considered to be less harmful. The majority of prisoners are now being enrolled in educational programs, which has decreased the prevalence of crimes among prisoners. The younger generation was already growing up with the new attitudes towards crime and punishment; therefore, it has been easier for prisons to implement reforms and make sure that people stay out of trouble. The amount of federal prison population has decreased by more than one fourth in the past decade. There have also been several cases where individuals were released because they were deemed to be no threat to society.

Focusing to implement reforms that only improve the conditions for the imprisoners while leaving out the prison staff will indisputably result to total failure. This is because the system is not only made up of the incarcerated individuals but also, the prison staff who play a bigger role in protecting the imprisoners and providing them with the required necessities. It is therefore important to consider ways of motivating them to excellently perform their duties. The most essential way for motivating the staff is by meeting their needs, such as provision of proper salaries and incentives. This will enable them to perceive their work as a profession and not a sacrifice. Another way is by providing them with the opportunity to get additional bonuses for promoting better performance in their jobs. A new study conducted by Prof Leanne Reynolds and Dr Mavis Smith from the University of Northeastern Australia has revealed that staff in correctional facilities were not motivated enough to meet the different job roles well. The study was aimed at assessing the effectiveness of bonuses and incentives as a way of motivating staff in correctional facilities. The researchers found that incentives have a significant impact on improving staff motivation and consequently highlight their role as important as correctional administrators. Feedback also indicated that staff who didn’t receive incentives had a lower level of job satisfaction. Staff who participated in the study also acknowledged that they were less satisfied with the relevant aspects of their jobs, such as workload and supervision. Organizations, especially those that are a part of government agencies, should adopt these strategies because they will lead to an increase in staff motivation levels which ultimately promotes a better correctional facility where all the staff are actively involved in working together towards the same goal while achieving it effectively.

On the other hand, staff retention continues to be a major challenge that faces the federal prison staffing (Jernigan, 2018). It is essential as well to develop strategies which would promote retention of prison staff in correction facilities. One strategy would be to create a strong and vibrant culture that will support the staff towards achieving their goals as well as building a professional relationship with the prison management, thereby creating an environment for them to excellently do their job (Jernigan, 2018). The second strategy would be through addressing factors that influence the staff to quit work; such as increased workload (Jernigan, 2018). For instance, employment of more workforce will relieve the workload; thus, reducing the possibilities of staff quitting their jobs. Organizations should consider these strategies because they will ensure effective and efficient service delivery. The prison staff play a very significant role in ensuring detainees are protected and treated in a humane way while being held in custody centers. In addition, they promote an effective correctional facility whose services are delivered efficiently to all inmates. The challenge of understaffing is often resolved by hiring temporary workers and holding on to staff who have been with the organization for more than 5 years; however, there are other issues which come along with this strategy such as limited career potentials, limited salaries and few benefits initiated by the organizations. Hence, the issue would be effectively resolved through employment of permanent staff in the facilities, to increase workforce.

References

Reitz, K. R., & Rhine, E. E. (2020). Parole release and supervision: Critical drivers of American prison policy. Annual Review of Criminology, 3, 281-298.

Bartels, L., Fitzgerald, R., & Freiberg, A. (2018). Public opinion on sentencing and parole in Australia. Probation Journal, 65(3), 269-284.

Dagan, N., & Roberts, J. V. (2019). Retributivism, penal censure, and life imprisonment without parole. Criminal Justice Ethics, 38(1), 1-18.

Hickert, A., Bushway, S. D., Harding, D. J., & Morenoff, J. D. (2022). Prior punishments and cumulative disadvantage: How supervision status impacts prison sentences. Criminology, 60(1), 27-59.

Jernigan, B. C. (2018). Correctional Nursing: Why is Retention an Issue?. Gardner-Webb University.

James, N. A. (2018). Risk and needs assessment in the federal prison system (pp. 7-5700). Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service.

Crime and Self Control

Crime and Self Control

Name

Institution

Crime and Self Control

Question 1

It is without doubt that a number of factors usually interact to bring about criminal behavior and as such, there definitely is no single measure that can be employed in order to eliminate the possibility of recidivism (Hirschi, 2002). However, findings of numerous studies and research, have served to demonstrate the importance of parental involvement when it comes to the prevention of criminal behavior, with numerous policies formulated aimed at increasing the level of parental involvement when it comes to child development. Smith and Stern (1997), further underline this importance when they conclude that indeed parental behavior or involvement does significantly influence the probability of a child becoming a delinquent. These findings are also shared by Lipsey and Derzon (1998) also find parental involvement as one of the factors that influence the development of criminal behavior, with supervision, discipline and parental warmth also amongst the factors identified as influential. As such it is therefore plausible to argue that an improvement in parenting would undoubtedly negatively influence the probability of a child developing criminal behavior.

Areas that can be focused on when looked at from a theoretical perspective would perhaps include but not be limited to:

Providing direct control through punishment and rewards

Establishing very close relationships with the child in order to employ indirect control

Providing sufficiently, in order to ensure control through needs satisfaction

Enhancing the child’s coping capabilities by providing sufficient social support and guiding the child on how to cope with various difficult situations

Supervising the child’s environment in terms of the company they keep.

The social control theory argues on three areas that one could claim fall under parenting. By employing the use of prompt and justifiable punishment whenever the child does something wrong, parents would essentially be instilling a sense of discipline and self control into the child, which could then ensure that even as an adult, the child is able to choose doing what is right over self gratification (Rao, 2007). Employing a reward system whenever the child does something right would also lead to similar results. Indirectly, ensuring that the child has all he/she may need, actually serves as a control in itself and may discourage the child from engaging in delinquent behavior.

Establishing a close relationship with a child could actually serve to help in realizing improvements in the other two areas, controlling the company they keep, which according to the differential association theory, may actually result in criminal behavior. Secondly a close relationship may actually help when it comes to coping with strains that may otherwise have resulted in criminal behavior (Agnew & White, 1992).

Question 2

I certainly do not agree with the assertion that it can be too late to instill self control in adults, as self control can be achieved as long as the individual is aware that their actions have consequences, rewards in case of good behavior and punishment in cases of bad behavior. As such therefore adults are not a lost cause when it comes to instilling self control. One of the ways of looking at this argument would be using the differential association theory: which essentially argues that as long as the unfavorable definitions for violating a crime do not outweigh the favorable definitions of not violating the law, the individual will essentially not break the law (Sutherland, 1947). As such an approach that continuously rewards previous delinquents for abiding by the law, and severely punishes repeat offenders would go a long way towards instilling a great degree of self control.

References

Agnew, R. & White, H. (1992). An Empirical Test of General Strain Theory. Criminology 30(4),475-99.

Hirschi, T. (2002). Causes of delinquency. New Jersey: Transaction Publishers.

Lipsey, M., & Derzon, J. (1998). Predictors of Violent or Serious Delinquency in Adolescenceand Early Adulthood: A Synthesis of Longitudinal Research.

Rao, S. (2007). Criminal Behavior: A Dispassionate Look at Parental Disciplinary Practices.Indian Journal of Psychiatry

Smith, C., & Stern, B. (1997). Delinquency and Antisocial Behavior: A Review of FamilyProcesses andIntervention Research. Social Service Review, 71, 382-420.

Sutherland, E. (1947). Principles of Criminology. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott

Crime Fighting Strategy

Crime Fighting Strategy

Introduction

What is crime? Many definitions have been provided to define crime. There are many variations depending on what the type of crime committed. Therefore crime is based on anything that is contrary to the criminal justice of any nation or country. Crime is an offence committed by an individual against the state laws or set of conditions that protect basic the community. The society is made of certain aspects that maintain and manage order amongst its members. In order to maintaining peace, unit and harmony Smartt, U. (2006), it was devised to implement various clauses that explain what is to be carried out if a crime is committed, therefore a criminal justice system is developed. Therefore crime can be an offence that is punishable by the law.

Therefore due to the existence of a criminal justice system it has become efficiency to uphold the trend of punishing law offender and criminals. Therefore a criminal justice is the grouping of various governmental set standards and institutions that uphold the common agenda of maintaining peace and order in the society. Through the various institutions that have been established by the government are, court systems that are used to pass judgment to various criminal offenders, correctional facilities that act as basic institutions, to provide discipline and keep out of dangerous individuals from the public and society. Finally there are law enforcers such as the police, military personnel and other justice institutions that make the laws for punishing individuals with criminal intent, Smartt, U. (2006). 

In order for the criminal justice to exist, it has become essential to implement certain crime fighting strategies that can act as means of maintaining order and peace in a society without using the power of law. Consequently in order to safely implement these criminal justice systems, it has developed different strategies that maintain the aspect of developing a better means and way of controlling crime. There are many strategies that have been used by various systems in order to control crime in the community. Since there are many reasons that may certainly force individuals to break laws and standards set by various community leaders and their government, it is therefore important to establish leadership and responsibility forums that seek to educate everybody on how to be responsible, Baker, T. E. (2009).

Crime Educating Forum

This is a better strategy in the current dynamic world. It creates a better understanding of the world of criminal justice in any responsible governmental, Keyes, L. C. (1992). . There are many strategies that cannot be quantified as providing a person with the knowledge of making reason ahead of everything. Others may argue that anybody with a better reasoning can still commit a crime. Therefore it is important to develop a reasonably means of developing a criminal justice that first educates the society of the importance of maintaing a crime free society. In the community development there are rules that engage various people about the responsibility of following rules and set standards, Baker, T. E. (2009). Therefore the policy behind this strategy is to outsource the many resources of law and criminal justice in order to educate the public on what is to be done when certain measures are broken. Regardless of the crime committed, correctional means may differ depending on the crime committed. Therefore with first hand information and a department committed to creating a better and crime free society, this is the perfect policy that will seek every person and individual in upholding an outstanding criminal justice system.

Purpose of this policy

The main objective of developing this policy is to educate the public and society on the importance of developing a well educated and fundamental society that upholds law. In order to encompass a community or society, it has become fundamental and essential to form an educative program that can be integrated into our society’s common agendas. This will create a better frontal that helps in maintaining the balance of leadership and justice. How does one improve the desire of maintain a better society? Education has become a paramount resource nowadays that will maintain order and harmony, Keyes, L. C. (1992). .

Theory of the policy

There are many theories that cab grouped in the study towards achieving and proposing this policy. In order to oversee the power of knowledge it is important to gain understanding and then acting on the conscience of that idea. Committing crime cannot be regarded as the fundamental idea of lacking reasoning and power of making sound decisions. Therefore this is a policy developed from the theory of knowledge and understanding the consequences of committing a certain crime, Keyes, L. C. (1992). Furthermore it is encouraging to learn that among the many strategies that have been developed they are all based on achieving the integrity of the society and criminal justice. Passing judgment can be seen as thing of integrity and not persuasion.

Anticipated benefits

The strategy should be able to provide basic ideas about developing a resourceful atmosphere and community that seeks the power of knowledge and unity. Taking into account the many reasons and beliefs about criminal justice, through better understanding and following of the rules, will help achieve an integral justice system. This system will be viewed with an idea that is essential and for the betterment of the community.

Advantages and Disadvantages of the policy

The policy has many ideas and advantages that can be viewed as means to promote the general community. Therefore some of the benefits will include;

Developing a better society that understands the common goals of justice

To avoid and reduce the number of crime offenders in the community

To enhance integration and cohesion among society members

To enhance the importance of objectivity and justice for the society, Keyes, L. C. (1992). 

Although there are many benefits, it may have contrary effects on the society

Although education is fundamental, it can’t cure ignorance that many societies face about leadership and the power or rules.

Educating every individual in the society may be a tedious work that many volunteer may deem unnecessary

Sometimes education may be different interpreted by many people hence it may lack meaning to others

Not all community members are literate to understand the concept being presented, Keyes, L. C. (1992).

Implementation plan

How can the community and government implement this educating policy? There are many issues that many governmental bodies can use to implement this policy. The government and justice institutions may integrate this policy through education forums in the public and schools. Presenting different talk shows in the public and community gathering is a better way of creating cohesion and integration among community society. Hosting public forums is essential in developing a clear resource center, Baker, T. E. (2009). This resource center will have sufficient resources and educating the society about crime and its effects if not well developed and monitored. Employing community volunteers to educate society from one area to another in order to implement the common goal of teaching and educating the public about law and crime.

References

Baker, T. E. (2009). Intelligence-led policing: Leadership, strategies, and tactics. Flushing, NY: Looseleaf Law Publications.

Davies, M., Croall, H., & Tyrer, J. (2009). Criminal justice. New York: Pearson Longman.

Keyes, L. C. (1992). Strategies and saints: Fighting drugs in subsidized housing. Washington, D.C: Urban Institute Press.

Palmiotto, M. (1999). Community policing: A policing strategy for the 21st century. Gaithersburg, Md: Aspen.

Purpura, P. P. (1996). Criminal justice: An introduction. Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann.

Smartt, U. (2006). Criminal justice. London [u.a.: SAGE.

The baby’s first year’s causal study is trying to determine how reduction of poverty causses changes in brain development

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The baby’s first year’s causal study is trying to determine how reduction of poverty causses changes in brain development. The research study was conducted on randomized mothers within the United States, who were given unconditional cash gifts, and others were made to receive larger amounts of money which could help change their day-to-day lives, and most likely increasing their monthly income by 20% to 25% (TED Salon, 2019). The research was committed to determine whether poverty reduction helps to improve the cognitive, emotional, and brain development of a child within their first three years of life.

The neuroscientists are trying to understand whether the cost-effective way to help children living in poverty would be to give their mothers more money that would first help to reduce the poverty level. The researchers postulate that the level of family income affects a child’s brain structure; such that, children born in disadvantaged families have been found to have a smaller surface area of the brain cortex, while those from non-disadvantaged families have larger surface area (TED Salon, 2019). Thus, their study is to understand the effectiveness of poverty reducing in improving the brain development of a child.

The study is trying to produce a hypothesis that would support that reducing poverty would promote the child’s brain, cognitive, and emotional development. If the hypothesis is established, the researchers intend to use the study results to address and inform debates about social servicesthat have a greater influence on millions of families with young children within the USA. The results would be used to prove that addressing poverty will mean that children born in poverty today will have a promised brighter future (TED Salon, 2019).

Information learnt from this study is important because it helps to promote the understanding on how poverty affects the child’s brain development. It also helps to communicate the message that issue of brain development can be tackled through provision of better lifestyles for the families that are affected by poverty itself. By focusing to improve the brain development of children, the study will help to reduce inequalities and to achieve the objectives of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). This study is also significant because its results will help to build up the evidence on how poverty affects development of children’s brain, and how it can be addressed. Understanding what poverty does to a child’s brain development is important since there are millions of children who live in poor conditions within the US. Besides, poverty’s effects on child’s brain development is a critical factor in other social issues, not only educational outcomes, but also job employment. Hence, the study will hep to build a more comprehensive view of poverty and its effect on the neurological wellbeing of a child., as well as their cognition and socio-emotional competence.

This information can be used to enhance family economic stability and well-being through the support that would be provided by the welfare system after the study’s results inform on the effectiveness of addressing poverty. This will help to reduce poverty and improve brain development of the children which will result in improved academic performance; thus, increasing chances of employment. As a result, the wellbeing of families will be improved since the children will be made independent.

Studies show that children from low-income families are confronted with risk factors such as impaired physical health, mental health problems as well as exposure to toxic substances at home. These factors in turn lead to decreased cognitive and socio-emotional development of these children which may lead them into crime and substance abuse. By addressing the problem of poverty, the brain development of a child will be enhanced; thus, improving the child’s academic performance and reducing further involvement in crime.

References

TED Salon. (2019, January). How does income affect childhood brain development? [Video file]. https://www.ted.com/talks/kimberly_noble_how_does_income_affect_childhood_brain_development

Crime Problem and Gang Violence

Crime Problem

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Crime Problem: Gang Violence

Introduction

Gang violence has become a perennial problem in the United States. No matter the hard measures taken by the federal government to maintain law and order criminal gangs continue to wreck havoc in our streets and neighborhoods. In a 2010 survey, the National Youth gang Survey (NYGS) put the prevalence of gang problems at 34.1 percent, a figure that has remained fairly constant since 2005 (Egley and Howell, 2012). According to the survey, there are an estimated 29,400 number of gangs operating across the United States, with approximately 756, 000 gang members. The FBI associates the proliferation of gangs to the rise in the number of violent crimes. Gang crime account for more than half of all homicides reported in U.S large cities (Egley and Howell, 2012). While the gang problem may not be necessarily a new issue the chilling figures and other social economic consequences call for concerted effort to address gang-related crime.

Everybody is susceptible to gang crime (U.S. Department of Justice, 1996). This includes anybody who can come in between the gang attempts to control neighborhoods or anyone trying to disrupt the gang income which includes extortion, drugs and weapon trafficking, robbery, and fraud and brothels (Curry and Spergel 1992). Sometimes the teens are the most affected as they are lured into their enemy’s trap unknowingly. Other victims are the innocent citizens who have been caught in the crossfire. According to NYGS there was an annual average of 2000 gang homicide from 2006 to 2010 (Egley and Howell, 2012). Gang crime is mostly concentrated in urban areas. The most affected cities are the long beach, Oakland, Oklahoma, Los Angeles, Newark, Chicago and Oklahoma.

U.S, gang membership can largely be classified as street gangs, motorcycle gangs or the prison gangs. Although the number of females continuing to join these gangs has increased, gang membership is still dominated by the males. The majority of the members (58.6 percent in 2008) are adults, meaning that they are over 18 (Egley and Howell, 2012).

A Gang Structure

Adopted from: Urban Dynamics, Inc

Situational Analysis

In order to understand gang crime, it is important to first of all understand why gangs form (Clarke, 1997). What for instance motivate youths into joining gangs and what sustain them into this gangs? There are so many schools of thoughts as to why youths join gangs. There is a school of thought that believe youths join various gangs to fulfill some of the needs that the society is unable to provide for them(Felson, 1994).). Others attribute the formation of gangs to poverty and ethnic marginality, desire for material gain, influence of supportive peer groups, and escape from hostile families (Gordon, 2000). From a psychological perspective these motivating factors can be summed to what Maslow termed as the hierarchy of needs (Decker, 2008). In this theory, Maslow argues that that human needs are hierarchical, forming a pyramid shape. At the lower level, human beings are guided by the physiological and safety related needs. At the top of the pyramid they want to feel a sense of belongingness, self-esteem, and self actualization (Decker, 2008). When the youths are denied a fruitful opportunity to attain these needs, they are most likely to be lured to criminal gangs that ostensibly provide an easier way of rising to the top of pyramid. In this way, gangs are adoptive mechanism of releasing the human needs that that are not met through the proper channel.

However, theories that tend to lean towards environmental sociology tend to argue that inequality, poverty, and unemployment play a minimal role in influencing crime. According to these theories, people have a rational choice, and will always be motivated to behave in a way that maximizes pleasure and avoids pain. Routine Activity Theory, a subsidiary of Rational Choice Theory for instance holds that for a crime to occur there must be three elements: a motivated offender who has criminal inclinations, a promising target, and the absence of a capable guardian who can prevent the crime from occurring (Felson and Cohen, 1980). The three elements form the sides of the crime triangle or the problems analysis triangle.

Adopted from: Center for Problem-Oriented Policing

According to this theory, crime is a normal activity and will always occur when the three elements converge. From a utilitarian perspective, criminals are motivated to act whenever an opportunity presents itself. The opportunity can be the presence of a vulnerable target that is not protected by an effective guardian. In this case, the guardian is the security system. It is important to note a security system does not only comprise the police but also the neighbors, colleagues, friends, security guards and all the other preventive agents. Thus, whenever the security system is not effective enough in providing the security for its people, criminals will always strike (Clarke and Felson, 2004).

Principle Opportunity Theory

The opportunity theory is premised on the ground that opportunity makes the thief (Felson and Clarke, 1998). The theory argues that when there is an opportunity to commit a crime, the criminals will rise to the occasion. If this assertion is held in the perspective of the gang crime, it would not be truer. In United States for example, gangs seems to have an open opportunity to commit crime. If the gangs that are operating in drug trafficking are to be considered against this theory for instance, it can be argued the United States has ready market for drugs. Any criminal who want to indulge in drug trafficking will get an available market, and of course make good money. This is also the case with weapon trafficking. The opportunities are just irresistible.

As the theory further argues, a crime opportunity will create the opportunity for another crime. This must be the reason why the gangs are involved in a series of crimes. The gangs will be charged from all manner of criminal activities from homicide, extortion, rape, robberies and many more. Thus when one is trafficking arms; he or she can easily be tempted to employ the same weapons to commit a crime (Howell and Decker, 1998). Drugs traffickers also will be forced to unleash violence to protect their strongholds. It is also true that crimes will be concentrated in time and space. No wonder gang crime is more concentrated in lower end suburbs. Reducing the opportunity to commit crime will definitely reduce this type of crime but it is not usually the final solution. Concerted measures will have to be put in place.

Possible Intervention

The fact that gang crime is a perennial problem does not mean that it can not be eradicated, or at least reduced to tolerable levels (Braga et al, 2012). Various interventions can be applied to try and dismantle the gang culture. Like the opportunity theory would observe, gang culture is becoming too attractive. Many of the youngsters are now almost relating gang culture as a way of lifestyle. These gangs will exhibit a definite style of dressing, talking and even walking. Unless urgent measures are taken, the children who grow up in gang dominated neighborhood are likely to think that being a member of gang is a way of life. The government, the media and the larger society must do all things at their disposal to paint gang culture as unacceptable social behavior. Children must be taught to shape up to the right role models.

To reduce gang crime both the governments-federal and local- and the society at large must take measures that will discourage committing crime. At the federal level for instance, the government must make sure that drug and weapon trafficking is not only a difficult affair, but it is risky as well. Those caught committing crime must be made to face the full force of the law. Marketing the products of crime activity must be made increasingly difficult (Braga, 2011). This will call for dismantling the current thriving black market. It is important to remember that most of the criminal gangs will continue to commit crime so long as there are remarkable benefits (Eck, 1994). The government must make sure that committing crime is absolutely worthless, with no benefits. Such measures as seizing products gotten out of criminal activity are steps in the right direction.

In addition, as the criminal gang will commit crime in the absence of a guardian, the government must put in place an effective security structure, including an active police service and a society that is well informed and prepared in ways of reducing crime (Felson, 1994). The current modern policing requires that the security be trained in ways of pre-empting criminal activity rather than reacting to crime that has already been committed (Braga, 2011). More importantly, the government needs to put in place measures that will eradicate the excuses that are put up time and again as the motivating factors to crime. Such as excuses as poverty, unemployment and ethnic marginalization must be resolved.

Recommendations

Dismantling the black market to discourage drug and weapon trafficking. The government should ensure that our borders are well monitored, and guarded to prevent shipment of illegal goods.

Tightening security apparatus, including employing modern technology like evenly distributed CCTV cameras.

Training the police on active rather than reactive measures: In this way the police will have new ways of doing things like pre-empting crime rather than responding to criminal activity.

Use harsh deterrence measures like long term incarceration and capital punishment where warranted.

Invest in social economic conditions to uplift the life of all people

Ensure that the children are brought up in proper parentage and the right guidance before they slip to gang culture.

References

Braga et al. (2012).Moving the work of criminal investigators towards crime control. London: Sage Publishers

Braga, A. (2011). Problem-Oriented Policing and Crime Prevention. London: Sage Publishers

Center for Problem-Oriented Policing. (2012). A Theory of Crime Problems. Retrieved on Nov. 19, 2012 from: HYPERLINK “http://www.popcenter.org/learning/pam/help/theory.cfm” http://www.popcenter.org/learning/pam/help/theory.cfm

Clarke, R. & Felson, M. (2004). Routine Activity and Rational Choice. New York: Transactional Publishers

Clarke, R. (1997). Situational Crime Prevention: Successive Case Studies (2nd). New York: Harrow and Heston.

Curry G.D. & Spergel I.A. (1992) Gang Involvement and Delinquency among Hispanic and African American Adolescent males. Journal of research on Crime and Delinquency. Vol. 29 p.273-291

Decker, S. (2008). Strategies to Address Gang Crime: A guidebook for Local Law Enforcement. Glendale: Arizona Sate University.

Eck, J.E. (1994). Drug Markets and Drug Places: A Case-Control Study of the Spatial Structure of illicit Drug dealing. Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation. College Park: University of Maryland.

Egley, A. & Howell, J. (2011). Highlights of the 2010 National Youth Gang survey. Washington D.C: U.S Department of Justice

Felson, M. & Cohen, L. (1980). Human ecology and crime: A routine activity approach. Human Ecology Vol. 8(4), 389-405.

Felson, M. (1994). Crime and Everyday Life: Insight and implications for Society. California: Pine Forge press.

Felson, M. & Clarke, R. (1998). Principle of crime opportunity. New York: Harrow and Heston.

Gordon, S. (2000). Criminal Business Organization, Street Gangs and ‘Wanna-be’ Groups: a Vancouver Perspective. Canadian Journal of Criminology Vol. 42 (1), 39-60.

Howell, J. & Decker, S. (1998). The Youth gangs, Drugs, and Violence connection. Washington DC; U.S Department of Justice

U.S. Department of Justice (1996). Victims of Gang Violence: A New Frontier in Victim Services. Washington D.C: U.S Department of Justice.

Urban Dynamics HYPERLINK “http://www.urbandynamics.net/” http://www.urbandynamics.net/

Space Yacht Concert; Evelyn Munoz

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Date of SubmissionSpace Yacht Concert; Evelyn Munoz

Music is an essential and primary element of the entertainment industry. Attending a live concert is one of the best experience not only regarding entertainment but also in the basics of understanding the music theory part taught in class. There is a lot involved in music starting from the key learning, composing, recording, sound and instrumentation to the real performance as well as stage appearance. The overall art determines the presence and attraction of the genre to its audience. The aim of every artist is composing exciting music that will attract and satisfy the fans desire as entertainment is the crucial issue in this industry. Space Yacht concert powered by Night out is one of the best music recitals that I attended as an external live performance where Evelyn Munoz was the chief artist. In this paper, Evelyn Munoz performance at the Space Yacht place is illustrated in a profound extent as an out of class concert that helps in understanding varied types and styles of stage representation in consideration of the voice type, performance quality as well as the performer’s appearance.

Music keeps in advancing as time goes regarding the melodies, texture, chord structures, and harmonic series among many other music fundamentals. Also, the music composition and styles used are most important as various genres today are different to what they were some decades ago. The difference is distinct, and one can note when listening to the 90’s and nowadays music where today artists have the freedom to compose their work on own perspective. The case was different a few decades ago where the musicians had to write songs talking about their past experiences which were mostly related to their future in particular. Change is inevitable, and the artists have to adapt it to enhance diversification in the industry.

In the night out at the Space Yacht place lots of musical fundamentals were observed in the famous artist, Evelyn Munoz’s performance. During the presentation, the pitch of Evelyn Munoz’s voice was steadily creating a reverent melody that perfectly caught the audience’s attention. The excellence sound articulation free from noise and other irrelevant distractors from unconditioned instrumentation made her art unique and unusual becoming an efficient entertainment journal to all. Her attack style preferably marks the beginning of her performance as the note is explicitly introduced. The choral style is depicted by the homophonic texture in Evelyn Munoz art where mostly there is the application of soft text dynamics.

The unique vocal features mentioned above boosts the quality of her music, making Evelyn Munoz’s one of the most famous female artists worldwide. Stage appearance and performances are also a vital thing when it comes to determining an artist’s perfection in the music industry. Evelyn Munoz proved this right during her presentation at the Space Yacht during the memorable night out. She digitally made her performance starting from her dressing mode to instrumentation and dancing. It being a night out is clear that the audience is there for entertainment, it is an effective way of relieving stress after the long day’s chores work. Evelyn Munoz’s appearance made the presentation efficient and on the other side used instrumentation that provided the right pitch. The dancing modes especially in her work “Dance Sauté” made the audience left helpless from joining the changing styles throughout her presentation.

Evelyn Munoz’s art made the night out at the Space Yacht entertaining through the efficient application of her experience in music industry. The voice types, stage styles as well as the actual presentation and appearance in the stage significantly determines the quality of music genre. External learning out of the class work is vital to the music students as it provides an exposure to the real world and in the process, they end up learning different skills to boost their career as well as talents.

Crime Rates in the United Kingdom

Crime Rates in the United Kingdom

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Abstract

Crime refers to the violation of set up laws or rules which govern a system. Upon an individual being convicted for a certain crime, they’re liable to punishment by fine, being imprisoned for specified time period or going through a death sentence.

Gender

A study carried out in August, 2012 in which there were riots in Britain showed that suspects were charged and the press focused on ethnicity, age, offenders employment status and neighbourhood. However, and by far, the statistics shockingly revealed that gender ranked highest, with 92 percent out of the first 466 defendants being male. If for instance the crimes committed by men were at the same rate as those by women, £3.4 billion would be saved every year. There’s no much doubt that most crimes in the UK are committed by men. However, at no point will men ever commit crimes at the same rate as women do much as a male-free societies are not an option. With men taking the greater percentage of individuals committing crimes, it is still not convincing that masculinity is the root cause. Violent crime which could be easily associated to males is worrying and there seems to be a continuous rise. Taken as a percentage of the all of reported crime, violent crime has been;

2.4% in 1900

1% in 1937

0.9% in 1967

5.6% in 1997

There was however about 10% in 2011. The study shows that in September 2011, 17.42% comprised of violent crime out of the total of recorded crime.

As per a  HYPERLINK “http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Public_Health_Agency” o “Canadian Public Health Agency” Public Health Agency report, the rate of violent crime doubled among male youth during the late 1980s and 1990s. While it almost tripled among female youth, it rose for the latter from 2.2 per 1,000 in 1988 to a peak of 5.6 per 1,000 in 1996, with a decline beginning in 1999. Researchers have suggested that the high rise on crime statistics could be explained by the compulsory approach to schoolyard fights and  HYPERLINK “http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bullying” o “Bullying” bullying, thereby leading to criminalization of behaviours now commonly referred as “assault” behaviours. Increase in the proportion of female violent crime would be explained more by a change in policies that govern various laws than by effective behaviour of the population itself. Evidence indicates that aggressive and violent behaviour in children is directly related to family and social factors, such like social and financial deprivation; tough and inconsistent parenting; parents’ marital problems; family problems, whether between parents, by parents towards children or between siblings; poor parental mental health; physical and sexual abuse; and alcoholism, drug dependency or other substance misuse by parents or different other family members.”

Males are typically more openly aggressive than females, which violent crime statistics support. Some researchers have indicated that females are not necessarily less tough, but that they tend to show their aggression in less overt, less physical ways. For instance, females may go ahead to show case more verbal and relational aggression, such like  HYPERLINK “http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_rejection” o “Social rejection” social rejection. Men do on the other hand, however, express their aggression with violence more often than women would do.

Gender considerations in regard to crime have been largely ignored and pushed aside in criminological and sociological studies, until recent years, to the extent of female deviance having been marginalized (Heidensohn, 1995).

Females have an apparently low level of offending’ (Heidensohn, 1995); that they pose less of a social threat than their male counterparts; that their ‘delinquencies tend to be of a relatively minor kind’, but also due to the fear that including women in research could threaten or undermine theories, as Thrasher and Sutherland feared would happen with their research (Heidensohn, 1995).

1.42 million offenders were sentenced for criminal offences in England in the year 2006. 80 per cent of these offenders were male. 82 and 94 per cent of all the crime offenders in England found guilty of, or cautioned for, violence against the person, criminal damage, drug offences and robbery and burglary were male. Even though the number of offenders was quite small, 97 per cent of those found guilty of, or cautioned for, sexual offences were equally male.

The most commonly committed offence by both men and women in England was theft in 2006. 50 per cent of female offenders were found guilty of, or cautioned for, theft and handling stolen goods, compared with 30 per cent of male offenders. Overall, 71 per cent of theft-related offences were committed by men. Of those found guilty or cautioned for sexual offences, 98% were male. Women commit less ‘white collar’ crimes than men. This is at least partly mainly because women are less represented in the top business jobs.

Race/ethnicity

2.7% of the population aged 10 were blacks in England according to a survey carried out in 2009-2010.13.7% made up the prison population. 6% received sentences for burglary, 9% for violence against persons, 16% for drug offences, 19% for robbery, and 22% for fraud and forgery. Blacks however committed crimes that were more severe based on the longer sentence lengths. In 2003, twice as many blacks were in prison as at university as per the Commission for Racial Equality report.

12% of the population in London was Black in 2010. Statistics carried out in June 2010 by The Sunday Telegraph via a Freedom of Information Act request showed that street crimes with an inclusion of muggings, assault with intention to rob alongside snatching of properties had 54% being black people. 59% of the same made up of robbery, 67% were gun crimes and 32% were for sexual offences. In 2004, the British Crime Survey found out that more Whites than non-Whites reported being victims of racially motivated crimes with five times as many Whites as non-Whites reporting being wounded in the attacks. In contrast, hate crime statistics state that whites are a minority of the victims.

HYPERLINK “http://en.metapedia.org/wiki/Kriss_Donald” o “Kriss Donald” Kriss Donald, a fifteen-year-old was a victim of racial crime. He was kidnapped and murdered in  HYPERLINK “http://en.metapedia.org/wiki/Glasgow” o “Glasgow” Glasgow in  HYPERLINK “http://en.metapedia.org/wiki/2004” o “2004” 2004. Five men of British Asian origin were found guilty of racially-motivated violence. They were all convicted of murder and sentenced to life imprisonment.

A race advisor to the London mayor in 2003, said drugs and gun crime were the greatest threat to the black community. Following a string of murders committed by black people in 2007, Tony Blair the then British Prime Minister associated it to the black culture from the black community. To him, there was need to be mobilize and in turn denounce the gang culture that had been killing innocent young black kids. But we won’t stop this by pretending it isn’t young black kids doing it. As a result of the Africa-Caribbean people being underrepresented in the white-collar crime, gang involvement has been seen to be a continuing problem.

According to commentators, the issue of black people and crime is hidden away or downplayed, and that the fear of accusations of racism is viewed as a contributing factor. As one of the few police forces, the Metropolitan Police Service ranks as having gathered statistics on gang rape. Sorious Samura, a filmmaker gathered 29 such incidents which involved young people from the period January 2006 to March 2009 and came up with findings that 66 out of 92 people convicted were black or of mixed race. The filmmaker indicates that it is quite disturbing to ignore that such a high level of crime statistic was committed by black and mixed-race young men.

1,543 victims of racist crime in Scotland were of Pakistani origin in 2005-2006, while more than 1,000 victims were classed as being Britons. 87,000 people from either the black people or minority ethnic communities mentioned that they had been subjected to racial crimes according to the British Crime Survey in 2004. 49,000 violent attacks were reported with 4,000 being wounded. Similarly, 92,000 whites mentioned they had been victims of racial crimes. 77,000 however was the number of white people who had experienced violent attacks whereas white people who reported having been wounded were five times the number of blacks and minority ethnic victims which was at 20,000.

More than two-thirds of black men are held responsible for crimes like shootings and more than half of robberies in London are equally by black men according to the Scotland Yard figures. Statistics also show that police have held black women accountable for a disproportionate amount of violent crimes. 45 per cent of suspected female perpetrators were black for knife crime offences. Among those women and girls police took action against for gun crime, 58 per cent of women and girls had the police take action against them for gun crimes whereas 52 per cent were robbery related crimes.

Police statistics relate to those persons who were prosecuted – whether convicted or acquitted – whether issued with a caution, a warning or any form of penalty notice.

Over12 per cent of London’s 7.5million population is black. This includes those of mixed black and white parentage, whereas 69 per cent are white. These findings are as per the Office for National Statistics.

Police figures equally demonstrate that black men are more likely to be the victims of violent crimes. This accounts for up to about 832 out of 2,882 of male victims of shootings in 2009-10 being black. Black people as per annual figures indicate that they are six times more likely to be stopped and searched by the police than their white counterparts.

Richard Garside, of the Centre for Crime and Justice Studies at King’s College London, said: ‘Given Britain’s long history of racism and imperialism, it should not greatly surprise us that black and minority ethnic groups are disproportionately members of social classes that have tended to experience greater victimization and to be the subject of police attention. Just because the police treat black men as more criminal than white men, it does not mean that they are.’

Age

In 2009-2010, males aged 16 to 20 years in England were more at risk of being homicide victims with a rate of 34 homicides per million people in the age group.

The proportion of adults aged 16 years and above who thought crime had increased nationally in England fell from 66 per cent in 2009-2010 to 60 per cent in 2010-2011.

Adults aged 16 years and over believe that crime is not going up, while at a national level people believe that it is going up and at a much faster rate than anticipated.

Between 1 June 2000 and 31 December 2009, close to half (49 per cent) of adults aged 21 and above in England with an ASBO breached it at least once while 38 per cent breached it more than once.

In the year 2010, 384 prisoners were sentenced to life imprisonment in England and Wales, which is a decrease of 9 per cent when compared with 421 in the year 2009.

Since arrest rates are especially high for teenagers and young adults, criminologists have long contended that age structure changes affect crime trends. This belief has been drawn into question in recent years mainly because crime has not declined even though high-crime age groups have shrunk. The age/crime relationship is probably exaggerated by high arrest rates for younger persons. They are due partly to their lesser ability to escape arrest, younger persons commit more group crime, maybe as a result of peer influence and the age structure of victims should be considered. A review of 90 studies that touch on crime rates on age structure indicate that only a small minority proceeds to find significant relationships. It is however hard to conclude that the age/crime relationship does not exist, but the strength of evidence indicates that forecasts on demographic trends are not likely to be helpful.

The violent crime arrest rates for persons aged 10 to 24 years in 2009 were 519.6 arrests per 100,000 population for males, and 118.5 arrests per 100,000 for females.  The violent crime arrest rates were highest for males aged between 15 to 19 years with a rate of 730.3 per 100,000.

Residence

In 2007, reports showed that more than one-fifth of  HYPERLINK “http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crime_in_London” o “Crime in London” crimes in London ware committed by immigrants. Up to about a third of all solved, reported sex offences and a half of all solved, reported frauds in the capital were carried out by non-British citizens. A study conducted in 2008 found that the crime rate of Eastern European immigrants was similar to that of the indigenous population. 2006 research found that immigrants have a positive and significant impact on the crime rate. This confirms that larger shares of immigrants are associated with a higher crime rate. This may be caused by the higher unemployment, and thus worse socioeconomic conditions among immigrants. It also demonstrates that unemployed immigrants are still more likely to commit crimes than unemployed non-immigrants.

Crimes among residences have in most cases led to people deserting their houses. This in turn as effect on a city’s employment leading to low population growth, low growth of towns.

Arrival of immigrants has resulted in a lack of progress in the reduction of offences against property and in a minor increase in the number of offences against Collective Security (i.e. drugs and trafficking). In the case of nationals, their contribution to the increase in the crime rate is primarily concentrated in offences against persons. Econometric results confirm the result even after controlling for all the observed socioeconomic and demographic factors. The report indicates that a higher proportion of American, non-European, and African immigrants tend to widen the crime differential, the effect being larger for the latter ones. The paper generally supports that labor market related conditions seem to supersede other potential explanations for the relationship between crime and immigration. However, given the limitations of the dataset and the available statistics of crime in, the econometric analysis cannot exclude other alternative explanations such as ethnical related activities or misperceptions about the law. Cultural differences were statistically detected, endorsing the view that some communities of immigrants might not see criminal law as a body of rules capturing their own views of society.

Students are seen as rich pickings by some criminals who tend to assume that they have a mobile or smart phone, television, CD or DVD player, a laptop, digital camera and mp3 player, and maybe even a bike, a car or some designer gear. All are relatively easy to dispose of in the world they frequent.

Estimations are that a third of students become victims of crime, mainly theft and burglary, but many of these incidents ought to have been prevented.

Most students are in most cases not aware of crimes in our towns and cities until they bump into them one day. This happens to be particularly true for freshers partying in their first few weeks at university who are not ‘street-wise’ about the local area. Student victims may often be the worse for wear, perhaps having taken advantage of drinks promotions in a club or restaurant.

The figures speak for themselves. Up to about 20 per cent of student robberies do take place in the first six weeks of the academic year.

Profession/unemployment factors

There is a correlation between unemployment and crime. Similarly, joblessness is a major motivator in theft, burglary and violent crimes that can have a monetary motivation. Unemployment is linked to a greater extent to certain types of crimes which are mostly perpetrated by men without a college education. Wage fall has a greater effect on crime, given low wages don’t always provide workers with everything they want and need as it comes to fending for themselves and their families.

The greatest correlation between unemployment and crime is found with theft and burglary crimes, mainly because persons without an income, are in most instances desperate for money therefore end up stealing it, or steal things they need, can sell in exchange for money. These crimes are carried out by less-educated men in society. Wages for less skilled, poorly educated men decreased from 1979 to 1992 thereby resulting to a high rise in crime rates. 1993 to 1987 saw the same types of workers wages increase whereas crime rates decreased.

Lower wages rates, unemployment are equally linked with higher assault rates. Money, not only hatred, anger or revenge, can be a big motive in violent crimes. For the case of theft and burglary, this type of relation in assault cases will mainly, only exist in men without college education. Given money is rarely a motive in rape or murder — consequences of these crimes far outweigh any monetary gain — there are no strong correlation whatsoever between these crimes and unemployment or lower wages. This therefore does show how unemployment affects certain crimes — those with monetary motives — but does not raise the crime rates in all areas of crime.

It has been found that a bad labour market has a profound impact on the crime rates.

A fall in wages does increase the relative payoff of criminal activity. It is obvious that economic conditions do have an impact on crime. Analyses to examine the links between wages, unemployment and crimes between 1979 and 1997 for men without college educations were conducted. In one analysis, crime rates in several counties across the country were looked at. All counties with populations greater than 25,000 persons were compared with state wages and unemployment rates. Next analysis focused on statistics from 198 metropolitan areas. Researchers took into consideration factors like arrest rates and number of police who may have equally influenced crime rates. Researchers calculated that the 20 percent fall in the wages of non-college-educated men over the entire period accounts for a 10.8 percent increase in property crime and a 21.6 percent increase in violent crime. Wage declines are thus responsible for more than half of the long term increase in both property and violent crime.

Wages in turn had a greater effect on crime than was the case with unemployment rates. Reason being unemployment rates are cyclical and there are no strong long-term trends. Wages, however, fell steadily during most of the period under research. Long-term trend in wages was a big dominant factor on crime during this period under research.

Among less educated men, lower wages and higher unemployment rates where people lived made it more likely that they had participated in crimes. Cognitive ability and background on family makes it true for the researchers.

Low-skilled workers are clearly the most affected by labor change opportunities, making results remain after controlling for a wealth of personal and family characteristics.

REFERENCES

HYPERLINK “http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/crime.html” http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/crime.html

HYPERLINK “http://ukcrimestats.com/blog/2011/11/” http://ukcrimestats.com/blog/2011/11/

HYPERLINK “http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_and_crime_in_the_United_Kingdom” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_and_crime_in_the_United_Kingdom

HYPERLINK “http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/law-and-order/8681469/Crime-in-Britain-the-key-statistics.html” http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/law-and-order/8681469/Crime-in-Britain-the-key-statistics.html

http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1290047/Metropolitan-Police-crime-statistics-reveal-violent-criminals-black–victims.html

Crime Scene Report

Western Maryland Regional Crime Laboratory

Hagerstown Police Department

50 N. Burhans Blvd., Hagerstown, MD 21740

Crime Scene Report

Agency: Hagerstown Police DepartmentPage # 1 of 2

Case #: 98-108597Report Date: 08/01/07

Laboratory # CS-04-04

Ref: Suspicious Death, 123 West Main Street.

On entering the crime scene, there was male body lying on its side on a bed located at the center of the room. The bed was covered by a satin blue sheet which had some blood stains on it. There was a night stand positioned on the west wing of the room on the left side of the bed, on top of the night stand, there was a lamp, phone and a time clock. As per the clock, it was thirty minutes past nine. A rifle which was slightly covered by a pillow could be easily seen on the floor next to the bed and the night stand. On the east side of the room, there was a television set placed on top of another night stand. Under the television set, lied a written piece of paper. Next to the television set, a dust bin with crumpled pieces of paper in it could also be seen. On the northern side of the room, there was an empty box on the floor. Next to the empty box, there stood a night stand with a radio set, bottle of an alcoholic drink and empty drinking glass. Three pens, a pencil and a lamp were also placed on top of the night stand.

In order to get a general feel of the crime scene, I walked through the room. This was just to find out whether anyone had tampered with anything before my arrival. This also vital I n the creation of original theories based on the visual assessment. During the walk through, nothing was touched. The main idea of the walk through was just to get the general picture of what might have occurred. Potential evidences were duly noted at this stage. A second walk through was conducted where the scene was documented. This was done through taking of pictures and the drawing of sketches. During this stage, nothing was tampered with. After the second walk through, potential evidences were collected and stored safely according to the law. This was done so as to preserve the evidence. A thorough search commenced immediately after the second walk through. A zonal search was employed in order to thoroughly search the crime scene. The scene was divided in to four sectors. These sectors were namely the west, east, north and southern wing. The collection of physical evidence was carried during this stage. All evidences collected were immediately preserved, tagged and logged in properly recorded. The following evidences were collected.

Evidence

Exhibit # Evidence Where located

1 Stained blue bed sheets Bed

2 Cell phone Night stand

3 Pen one Hairdresser

4 Clear drinking glass Dresser

5 Liquor bottle Dresser

6 Paper with hand writing TV table

7 Crumpled paper Waste basket

8 Fire arm( rifle) Floor

9 Finger print Jaen

10 Pencil Dresser

11 Pen 3 Dresser

12 Pen 2 Dresser

13 Witness GSR Jaen

14 Decorative pillow Floor

15 Pillow 2 Floor

16 Waste basket Floor

17 Blood sample Jaen

18 Witness fiber Jaen

Laboratory Report

Bed sheet: stained blue sheets

Test #1: results of analysis:

The stain present on the bed sheet tested positive for the presence of human blood. DNA was extracted from the pillow under head and compared with the known DNA sample of Robert Allen Jones. To a reasonable degree of scientific certainty, It was determined that the source of the DNA on this exhibit originated from Robert Allen Jones.

Trace Evidence Analysis

Seven hairs were recovered from the sheets. These hairs were determined to be of human origin. Five of the hairs are consistent in microscopic characteristics with hair exemplars of Robert. Two of the hairs are consistent in microscopic characteristics with red-hair exemplars of miss Daugh.

Gunshot residue analysis

The test was performed on the samples recovered near where the pillow was located. Numerous particles unique

Cell phone

Cell phone analysis

No voice mail messages were found. The account of this phone is the name of Robert Allen Jones. An attempt is being made to obtain the telephone records for the phone.

Glass

Finger print analysis

Three partial latent prints containing sufficient friction ridge skin patterns to be of value for comparison/ identification purposes were identified on the submitted water glass. Latent prints were identified as originating from right thumb, right index, and right ring finger or Robert.

Forensic biology

Swab samples from the rim of the submitted water glass yielded positive results for presence of saliva. DNA was extracted from this exhibit and compared to known DNA samples of Robert Allen. To a reasonable degree of scientific certainty, it was determined that the DNA on this exhibit originated from Robert Allen Jones

Toxicology for drugs and alcohol

No positive results yielded

Liquor bottle

Finger print analysis

Three partial latent prints containing sufficient friction ridge skin patterns to be of value

For comparisons purposes were identified. The finger prints belonged to Robert.

Forensic Biology

Swab samples from the mouth of the submitted liquor yielded positive results for presence of saliva. The DNA matched that of Robert.

Note

Finger print analysis

The finger print found on the note matched that of Robert.

Fire arm

Forensic biology

Stain present on the riffle yielded positive results for presence of human blood. The DNA sample matched that one of Robert.

Trace evidence analysis

Two hairs were recovered from the rifle. The hairs were determined to of human origin. They were consistent with head-hair exemplars from Robert.

Gunshot residue analysis

Numerous particles unique to the Gunshot residue were identified on the rifle. This indicated that the rifle had not been cleaned after being fired last.

Firearm examination

The firearm was tested. The rifle is operational and no safety defects were detected, the submitted projectile from the deceased at autopsy compared to the projectile that was test fired, it was determined that the projectile recovered from the deceased was fired from the riffle.

Witness fiber

Trace evidence

No fibers matching Jaen were discovered within the crime scene

Gunshot residue analysis

This test yielded no useful result

Witness fingerprints

Fingerprint analysis

No finger print matching jaen were discovered within the crime scene.

Witness GSR

Forensic Biology

The test yielded no result.

Reconstruction

Due to lack of evidence that pointed towards the direction of Jaen having committed the crime, only one conclusion was arrived at. All evidence pointed that this was suicide because all the DNA samples collected belonged to Robert

cc: HPD Central Records

Prof. S. Blankenship

HPD Lab case file

Report Submitted By:

Your Name Here

Forensic Student Reviewed By:

Crime Victims’ Needs and VOCA-Funded Services

Lisa C. Newmark

Crime Victims’ Needs and VOCA-Funded Services

Why is the author creditable (based on academic/research, credentials, experience with victim services, etc.)

Dr. Lisa C. Newmark is is a leading director in an undergraduate program at George Mason University. She is also an associate professor in the department of society, criminology and law at the same university. Before joining this prestigious university in 2007 she was a senior associate researcher in the center for urban institute Justice Policy. She has had a rich experience in evaluation, applied research, as well as policy and program development for direct services for a wide range of crime victims.

b. What does this article say regarding crimes, victims and/or victim services?  (Brief article summary)

Her article Crime Victims’ Needs and VOCA-Funded Services asserts that many crime victims are not able to access formal service programs for victims. Only 45 of victims have had their cases being addressed by this group of service providers. These findings indicate that there is a dire need for the expansion of this service to victims who are rapidly getting underserved. This is because a considerable number of victims still do not get served by alternative services. However findings indicate that victims are happy with VOCA services.

c. How does this article compare with the other articles I have selected?

This article is different from other articles I have selected because it goes on to provide a summary of an empirical research carried out by the author. Apart from that it also gives out the findings .of other various researches carried out by other authentic institutions on the subject matter. It draws sound conclusions based on a wide research initiative by the author. She supports my initiative to carry out my own investigations by saying that the consequences of crime do not necessarily have to be reported for some victims can help themselves.

d. How will this article assist me in my efforts to develop a victim assistance program?

This article will assist me develop a victim assistance program through the following: Firstly the author already acknowledges that the results of crime do not necessarily generate the need to seek help from other people. In spite of whether it is formal or informal help. However, victims who are overwhelmed emotionally may need to seek alternative help. According to this report 20% of victims did not get satisfied with the justice system. The victims were dissatisfied because a number of offenders were not found guilty for their actions. The more reason why I need to develop a victim assistant program.

Jacqueline Corcoran

The Effects of a Police/Victim Assistance Crisis Team Approach to Domestic Violence

Why the author is creditable (based on academic/research, credentials, experience with victim services, etc.)

Jacqueline Corcoran who has a Doctor of Philosophy degree in law is a professor at the Virginia University in Alexandria. She heads the school of Social work..She has coauthored and also authored numerous books dealing with strengths based models and evidence. Part of her work also includes clinical applications of family interventions that are evidence based, Building of skills and strengths as well as Diagnosis and clinical Assessment in social work practices.

b. What does this article say regarding crimes, victims and/or victim services?  (Brief article summary)

c. How does this article compare with the other articles I have selected?

This article in comparison to others I have selected in that it covers cases beginning from the early 90s. Apart from that it also covers statistics of murder between partners unlike the others I had selected. The expenses incurred from domestic violence in the US alone per year are also estimated in this article; where it is estimated that family violence in the US costs the tax payers about $5-10 billion. However, these costs raise to $164 billion if children’s effects are also incuded. Most of these costs are as a result of non productivity, medical treatments and court cases.

d. How will this article assist me in my efforts to develop a victim assistance program?

This article will assist me in my attempt to set up a victims assistance program through the following ways: It reports that law enforcement agencies are facing challenges when dealing with domestic violence stemming from the following reasons; In the first place the domestic violence calls tend to call for more time than other pressing police matters, the high number of dismissed cases and the low rate of prosecution when it comes to such matters makes police officers perceive it as a waste of time arresting perpetrators of domestic violence. This means there is a gap in the industry and i need to come in and feel it through starting a victims assistance program.

Skogan, W.G., Davis, R.C. & Lurigio, A.J. (1990). Victims’ needs and victim services. Final report of the Center for Urban Affairs, Northwestern University to the National Institute of Justice.

Why is the author creditable (based on academic/research, credentials, experience with victim services, etc.)

Wesley Skogan is an expert in policing and crime, in the lastbthree decades he has spearheaded numerous researches ta the institute for policy research which include victim response to crime, the fear of crime and victimization. From 1993 he was directing an assessment of the Chicago’s experimental city wide initiative. His recent project include: an assessment of the use of information technology by law enforcement agencies.,

b. What does this article say regarding crimes, victims and/or victim services?  (Brief article summary)

The author conducted four crime assisting programs in where he made use of proactive outreach polices, He tried to vary the extend of conduct with people who reported crime to law enforcing agencies. He t5herefore made his team divide non conduct and conduct cases. People who had at least a telephone call with the research team were conduct cases. Non conduct cases were those whose cases were made to the team through a third party. After making conduct with the conduct cases and referring them to the police it was realized that it would take about 9 months for victims to be reattributed.

c. How does this article compare with the other articles I have selected?

This art goes in full fledged research unlike the other articles where the author makes actual conduct with the victims and carries out an empirical research to find out how long it would take for their cases to be heard and concluded. The author also is able to make a very important finding that has not been made in the other articles; not all cases reported by victims are entered into the police computers, consequently some cases are never heard or they take too long to be heard and concluded.

d. How will this article assist me in my efforts to develop a victim assistance program?

This article will assist me in my efforts to develop a victim assistance program through the following ways: I will get to a local police station where cases have been filed and make comparisons of cases that are in court, and those that have not yet been heard then find out which ones are missing from the computer data base. From her I will feel the gap of police complacency by taking on the cases to find out how I can assist the victims.

The Victim/Witness Assistance Program and JAG Corps 21

by Mr. Dennis E. Matthews, Jr.*Why is the author creditable (based on academic/research, credentials, experience with victim services, etc.)

Broadie is an expert in investigating homicides , in the last 40years he dealt with a number of volatile cases while teaching at Texas state university. He has written many books and articles. From 2007 he was leading the criminal justice department at the university of texas. His recent project dealt with assisting victims trace criminals without fearing that they would come back for them in Washngton.

What does this article say regarding crimes, victims and/or victim services?  (Brief article summary)

The author believes that in the Victims assistance program was doing well in 1982 when it started. It was committed because it stemmed from earlier studies on crime. Itbvwas instituted by bPresident Reegan after receiving reports from a committee on how to safeguard the rights of victims by protecting them from criminals who wanted to avenge if they testified against them. The entire study was about re-victimization and how victims could be placed on an equal footing with the accused. The office that deals with victims of crime was eventually placed in the ministry of justice. However after many years these policies no longer work and there is a need to feel this gap through private practice.

c. How does this article compare with the other articles I have selected?

This article is somehow different from the other articles I have selected since it deals with the military and also refers to the history of the victims assisting program and how it was started in the USA. The articles deals with how this victimization program worked for the military personnel spouses who became victims of domestic violence. The author asserts that there can not be a substute for an experi3enced VWAP professional that can reallybchampion

d. How will this article assist me in my efforts to develop a victim assistance program?

Skogan, W.G., Davis, R.C. & Lurigio, A.J. (1990). Victims’ needs and victim services. Final report of the Center for Urban Affairs, Northwestern University to the National Institute of Justice.

Why is the author creditable (based on academic/research, credentials, experience with victim services, etc.)

Wesley Skogan is an expert in policing and crime, in the lastbthree decades he has spearheaded numerous researches ta the institute for policy research which include victim response to crime, the fear of crime and victimization. From 1993 he was directing an assessment of the Chicago’s experimental city wide initiative. His recent project include: an assessment of the use of information technology by law enforcement agencies.,

b. What does this article say regarding crimes, victims and/or victim services?  (Brief article summary)

The author conducted four crime assisting programs in where he made use of proactive outreach polices, He tried to vary the extend of conduct with people who reported crime to law enforcing agencies. He t5herefore made his team divide non conduct and conduct cases. People who had at least a telephone call with the research team were conduct cases. Non conduct cases were those whose cases were made to the team through a third party. After making conduct with the conduct cases and referring them to the police it was realized that it would take about 9 months for victims to be reattributed.

c. How does this article compare with the other articles I have selected?

This art goes in full fledged research unlike the other articles where the author makes actual conduct with the victims and carries out an empirical research to find out how long it would take for their cases to be heard and concluded. The author also is able to make a very important finding that has not been made in the other articles; not all cases reported by victims are entered into the police computers, consequently some cases are never heard or they take too long to be heard and concluded.

Article will assist me in my efforts to develop a victim assistance program through the following ways: I will get to a local police station where cases have been filed and make comparisons of cases that are in court, and those that have not yet been heard then find out which ones are missing from the computer data base. From her I will feel the gap of police complacency by taking on the cases to find out h

d. How will this article assist me in my efforts to develop a victim assistance program?

This article will assist me in my efforts to develop a victim assistance program through the following ways: I will get to a local police station where cases have been filed and make comparisons of cases that are in court, and those that have not yet been heard then find out which ones are missing from the computer data base. From her I will feel the gap of police complacency by taking on the cases to find out h