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Lumbar Spine Movement Analysis

Lumbar Spine Movement Analysis

Longissimus Thoracis Agonist concentric Insertion-Longissimus thoracis inserts at the posterior tubercle of the traverse processes of vertebrae C2-C6 Origin-originates from the first five vertebrae (T1-T5) Plane motion- lateral flexion and rib rotation

Rectus Abdominis Antagonist concentric Insertion-Rectus abdominis inserts at costal cartilages of ribs 5-7 Origin- rectus abdominis originates from pubic crest and pubic symphysis Plane motion- lateral flexion

Semispinalis Capitis Antagonist concentric Insertion- semispinalis capitis inserts at the back base of the skull Origin- this muscle originates from articular processes of vertebra C4-C7 Plane Motion- rotation of the head and lateral flexion

Iliocostalis Thoracis Agonist concentric Insertion- traverse processes of vertebra C4-C6 Origin- These muscles originate from the angles of ribs 3-6 Plane motion- lateral flexion

Splenius Cervicis Agonist eccentric Insertion- splenius Cervicis inserts at transverse processes of C1-C3 Origin- This muscle originates from spinous processes of T3-T6 Plane motion- extend the neck and lateral flexion

Lung cancer has been one of the deadliest diseases caused by excessive consumption of tobacco

Lung cancer has been one of the deadliest diseases caused by excessive consumption of tobacco. The government has responded to the rising levels of tobacco consumption by slapping a highly exploitative tax to both the tobacco farmer and the cigarette’s manufacturer. The question that stems out of this line of thinking aims at establishing a relationship between the rate of cigarette smoking and cigarette tax. For this research, we shall hypothesize that the higher the rate of cigarette taxation, the lower the smoking rates in the United States of America. The reasoning that leads to the development of this hypothesis is in accordance to the law of demand that states that, the higher the price of commodities the lower the consumption levels. Higher taxation levels are expected to increase the prices of the respective commodities. Some of the issues expected to shed some light on this topic include the impact of tobacco taxes and prices on the demand levels of cigarettes. This will be possible to access through the determination of a possible correlation between the two variables. Secondly, we shall use a measure of the proportion of individual income spent on the purchase of cigarettes. Previous studies have shown that a change in price leads to less than proportionate decline in the level of demand hence, the price elasticity of demand stands from -0.3 to -0,5. In this research, we shall determine the relationship between price and the level of cigarette demand.

Background

Ramsey’s rule holds that consumption taxes should be applied to those goods that enjoy low price elasticity. The major reason for this is to allow for minimization of the welfare losses associated with the taxation of such goods. In the recent past, many countries have moved to increase tobacco tax to reduce the levels of tobacco consumption. A good example is the United States where the welfare loss associated with tobacco far much outweighs the benefits that are associated with it. The agenda of the increased costs is that, the tobacco users should bear the full costs associated with the consumption of tobacco. However, they assume that the social costs arising can be quantified in monetary terms and their equivalents determined. A major topic that relates heavily to this topic is the use of tobacco tax as part of the public health policy. This is supported strongly by the externality costs that come along with the use of tobacco. However, this research aims at establishing the impacts of the taxes on the tobacco.

The history of cigarette smoking

In the United States, one can say that tobacco tax is much older than tobacco smoking. This is in the light that, tobacco law was developed out of the development of tobacco products such as snuff back in the late 18th century. It was not until mid-19th century that cigarette smoking became popular among the citizens. Alexander Hamilton introduced the first tobacco law in 1794 as the secretary to the treasury. The introduction of this law on tobacco products was successful as many amendments. It composed of major modifications that were repealed after it was realized that they had minimal impact on the federal budget. Despite the failure of this law, Hamilton’s idea of tobacco taxation remained a major topic and subject to the history of tobacco taxation in the United States.

Almost a decade later, the House of Representatives passed a major law on many similar products among them, tobacco. The passing of this law was aimed at raising funds that would be used in debt servicing after the union had acquired increasing debts over time. The law, passed in July 1, 1862 could not last as a whole. Shortly after the civil war financing was over, most of the substances that had been passed alongside tobacco were repealed but incidentally, tobacco remained as one of the substances that had to be regulated by the law. The tax revenues emanating from tobacco taxation was the government’s main source of revenue in the year 1868.

The federal government was the only entity that had imposed an exercise tax on tobacco until the 20th century when Iowa became the first state to enact a law to exercise tax on tobacco. This new tax was in addition to the federal tax making the taxation of tobacco gain significant weight on the producers. By the year 1950, about 40 states had enacted legislation to levy taxes on tobacco. The entire United States and Columbia district had enacted tobacco tax by the year 1969. Several other cities had also put in place their own citywide cigarette tax that aimed at collecting tax for the jurisdictions. Among these cities, we have New York and Chicago among others. New York had the highest levels of tobacco tax in the entire United States with a $1.5 levy on the city tax and $4.55 rate on the state and local level. The state of Missouri had the least tobacco taxes listing 17cents, far below the list of many other countries.

Kerry C. “‘Song of Myself.’” A Companion to Walt Whitman

2007

they understand that they have to adapt to brutal ways of life. Inborn evil of human’s theory plays a key role in developing this theme. William Golding uses this theory when he indicates that these boys evolve to become the beast that they feared. As the boys turn to savagery

it is the beast inside their inborn evil that facilitates this transition. The novel uses symbols to communicate the divide existing between savagery and civilization. While the couch relates to Ralph

on the other hand

is the face of savagery. They have divergent ideas concerning ways to rule the island. Ralph represents order and democracy

which represents the protagonist and antagonists in the novel. Ralph mode of leadership was an indication of democracy respecting assembly among the boys and elections and the conch played a vital role in advancing his intentions. Piggy says “We can use this to call others” (Golding

22). It is an indication that conch could exercise power by calling others to assemble and instills order in this island. The conch is vital in maintaining civilization among the boys. With time engagement between Ralph and Jack started worsening and in the process

survival

and civilization. In support of using fire Ralph says “We can help them find us. A ship near the island may not notice us but will notice smoke on top of a mountain. We must make fire” (Golding

but they lie between Jack and Ralph. Initially

many boys have high levels of civilization and that is the reason they vote for Ralph. As the novel progresses

William. Lord of the Flies. London: Faber & Faber

1954

part 2″

LORD OF THE FLIES: Virtual Fruit Fly Genetics Lab, part 2

Di-Hybrid Crosses – you will be looking at 2 traits at the same time. Your goal will be to determine whether two genes are on the same chromosome or not, and how far apart they are. Before you set out to solve the problem, let’s do a warm up cross.

Warm up Cross. Cross a wild type female+/+ with a

male – design – Bristles -spineless(SS) and Body color – black(BL).

Based on your F1 results make a claim about how the black body and spineless bristles are inherited (e.g. autosomal, dominant, etc.). Justify your claim.

What are the genotypes of the F1 flies?

Using 2X2 punnett squares and the multiplication rule calculate the probability/proportions of the possible phenotypes of the F2 flies from a F1xF1 cross.

Body Color:

Bristles:

Phenotypes Probability:

+/+  _______ +/BL _________SS/+ __________    SS/BL ________

Cross the F1 female to the F1 male. And click on the Analyze tab. Check Ignore sex of Flies box only if you are certain none of the traits are sex linked. Check the box Include a test of hypothesis and fill out the expected values based on your answers above. Don’t forget to look at the total number of your flies (different each time you do a cross) in the table and use it. Make sure your expected numbers add up to the total number of flies, you can round to the nearest tenth. Record your results below.

Degrees of freedom _______________________ Chi-Square Value ______________

Look at the table and make a statement about the Null hypothesis

Next -the problem you are going to solve. Where are these genes located, different chromosomes or same chromosome. If they are on the same chromosome, how far apart are they?

Your job is to create a linkage map of the following traits, all of which are autosomal recessive

purple eye color

vestigial wing shape

spineless bristles

black body color

To do this you will need to cross a double mutant fly with a wild type fly,

then create an F2 generation from the offspring.

The F2 generation numbers will be tested using Chi-Square for the Null hypothesis – no difference from expected mendelian ratios if the genes are inherited independently.

If you reject the Null hypothesis, you will need to identify the recombinant offspring and calculate recombination frequencies, aka map distances.

Note: You must cross every trait with every other trait – this is 6 crosses in total.

But, here is the good news, you have already performed one of the crosses, your warm up cross. Simply transfer the data to the first table.

The 1st column of the table is filled out for you.

Cross #1: _____Black Body/Spineless Bristles____

P generation parents:_____________________________

F2 Generation Results:

Phenotype Ratio expected if genes are not linked Ratio expected if genes are linked Observed frequencies

(proportion column)

+, + 9/16= 0.56 +, _BL_ 3/16= 0.19 _SS_, +3/16=0.19 _BL_, _SS__ 1/16= 0.06 Are these two genes on the same chromosome? ______

If yes, what % of the offspring are recombinant? ____________

If no, support your answer with a Chi Square test

X2 = ________________________ Df = _______________________

Critical X2 value on table for p=0.05 = _________________________

Cross #2: P generation parents:_____________________________

F2 Generation Results:

Phenotype Ratio expected if genes are not linked Ratio expected if genes are linked Observed frequencies

(proportion column)

+, + +, _____ _____, + _____, _____ Are these two genes on the same chromosome? _____________

If yes, what % of the offspring are recombinant? ____________

If no, support your answer with a Chi Square test

X2 = ________________________ Df = _______________________

Critical X2 value on table for p=0.05 ______________

Cross #3: P generation parents:_____________________________

F2 Generation Results:

Phenotype Ratio expected if genes are not linked Ratio expected if genes are linked Observed frequencies

(proportion column)

+, + +, _____ _____, + _____, _____ Are these two genes on the same chromosome? _____________

If yes, what % of the offspring are recombinant? ____________

If no, support your answer with a Chi Square test

X2 = ________________________ Df = _______________________

Critical X2 value on table for p=0.05 ______________

Cross #4: P generation parents:_____________________________

F2 Generation Results:

Phenotype Ratio expected if genes are not linked Ratio expected if genes are linked Observed frequencies

(proportion column)

+, + +, _____ _____, + _____, _____ Are these two genes on the same chromosome? _____________

If yes, what % of the offspring are recombinant? ____________

If no, support your answer with a Chi Square test

X2 = ________________________ Df = _______________________

Critical X2 value on table for p=0.05 ______________

Cross #5: P generation parents:_____________________________

F2 Generation Results:

Phenotype Ratio expected if genes are not linked Ratio expected if genes are linked Observed frequencies

(proportion column)

+, + +, _____ _____, + _____, _____ Are these two genes on the same chromosome? _____________

If yes, what % of the offspring are recombinant? ____________

If no, support your answer with a Chi Square test.

X2 = ________________________ Df = _______________________

Critical X2 value on table for p=0.05 ______________

Cross #6: P generation parents:_____________________________

F2 Generation Results:

Phenotype Ratio expected if genes are not linked Ratio expected if genes are linked Observed frequencies

(proportion column)

+, + +, _____ _____, + _____, _____ Are these two genes on the same chromosome? _____________

If yes, what % of the offspring are recombinant? ____________

If no, support your answer with a Chi Square test

X2 = ________________________ Df = _______________________

Critical X2 value on table for p=0.05 ______________

Summarize your results in the table to help you construct a map of the 4 traits. Use N/A for map units if you think 2 genes are NOT on the same chromosome.

Gene/map units Bl SS VG PR

BL SS VG PR Using the table construct a map of the 4 traits. You can draw by hand and insert the image. See sample map. In the sample map 4 traits a,b,c,d are placed on 2 different chromosomes (lines). The distance between genes on the same chromosome are map units (m.u.) = recombination frequency. Note, because recombination frequencies vary and are not 100% precise, the distance between d and b and between b and c may not add up precisely to the distance between d and c, but should be adding up – approximately/roughly.

Insert your drawing here.